Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Virginia Tech also participates in the management of Net.Work.Virginia and the Mid Atlantic Crossroads.
. It has participated in Suranet, Internet2, Abilene, the Lambda Rail and other such networks. This takes into account the anatomy, distribution, and migration of various wolf colonies. Internet networking research is an important part of Virginia Tech's history. However, the last decade has seen a new and widely accepted list that has been condensed to 13 living subspecies, and 2 recently extinct subspecies. The supercomputer, called System X, was disassembled shortly after it was ranked in order for it to be replaced with Apple's rack-based servers which consume both less space and power. It was once believed there were as many as 50 separate subspecies.

The system was made from 1100 dual processor Power Macintosh G5s and cost $5.2 million. The subspecies for the Gray Wolf has been a very controversial issue among taxonomists. In 2003, Virginia Tech created a supercomputer which ranked as the 3rd fastest in the world. Further taxonomic clarification may well take decades. degrees in biomedical engineering. Many of these seem unlikely to stand. and Ph.D. Scientists have proposed a host of subspecies.

SBES offers opportunities to undergraduates and grants M.S. Indeed, only a single wolf species may exist. In 2002, a biomedical engineering program, called the School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences (SBES), was created as a cooperative venture between Virginia Tech and Wake Forest University. Although taxonomists have proposed many species over the years, most types clearly do not comprise true species. VCOM is incorporated as a private, non-profit institution with no state interest, but is very closely affiliated with Virginia Tech on an operational level. The classification of wolves and closely allied creatures offers many challenges. In 2003, a school of osteopathic medicine called the Edward Via Virginia College of Osteopathic Medicine opened in the Virginia Tech Corporate Research Center, an office park adjacent to and owned and operated by the university as a local business incubator. However, molecular systematics now indicate very strongly that domestic dogs and wolves are more closely related than either is to any other canid, and the domestic dog is now normally classified as a subspecies of the wolf: Canis lupus familiaris.

VMRCVM and VT jointly operate an equine center in Leesburg, Virginia, and VMRCVM has a small operation on the University of Maryland's College Park, Maryland campus. Because the canids have evolved recently and different canids interbreed readily, untangling the true relationships has presented difficulties. The Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, founded in 1978, is a separate institution on the same campus, paid for by the two US states of Virginia and Maryland and jointly operated by VT and the University of Maryland. Most authorities see the wolf as the dog's direct ancestor, but others have postulated descent from the Golden Jackal. The Hokies developed a controversial reputation for late-season slides in the early 2000s, rising into the top 5 in October or November four times before losing and falling out of the national championship race. Much debate has occurred over the relationship between the wolf and the domestic dog. Since the 1995 season, the Hokies have finished with a top-10 ranking four times, won four conference championships (three Big East and one ACC), and played once for the national championship, losing to Florida State University 46-29 in the 2000 Sugar Bowl. The radio telemetry is an important component in the suite of tools used in Wisconsin to calculate the overall wolf population.

Head coach Frank Beamer has become one of the winningest currently active head coaches in Division I-A football (178 following the 2005 season). Use of such radio collars enable biologists in airplanes to track the wolves and count pack sizes. The Hokies currently have the fifth longest bowl streak in the country, having participated in bowl games each of the last 13 seasons. Darting and box traps are important tools used by wildlife biologists who use the techniques to catch wolves, fit them with collars holding radio transmitters, and check their health before releasing the wolves. Virginia Tech has become a major power in college football in recent years. Wolves are bred for their fur in very few locations, as they are considered as a rather problematic animal to breed, and combined with the low value of the pelt, it has driven most of the fur farms to change to utilizing other animals, such as the fox. This rivalry continued until 1970 when VPI's football program became too large and too competitive for VMI. It is alleged that trapping, using the right tools and equipment, can be considered as humane as hunting; however, unskilled trappers can create unnecessary suffering in animals.

This rivalry developed into the original "Military Classic of the South," which was an annual football game between VMI and VPI. Wolf trapping has come under heavy fire from animal rights groups, who also use it to attack other forms of trapping and hunting. During the early years of VTCC, a rivalry developed between the Virginia Military Institute and Virginia Tech. The economic value of wolf pelts is limited, so it is mainly a recreation activity. Virginia Tech's fight song, which was created in 1919, is Tech Triumph. It remains in use today, although the Old Hokie spirit yell is more widely known. Wolves are frequently trapped, in the areas where it is legal, using snares or leg-hold traps. The school's major athletic rivalries include the University of Virginia, West Virginia University, and the University of Miami. Such methods include rubber ammunition, and use of guard animals.

The "athletic VT" symbol is trademarked by the university, and appears frequently on licensed merchandise. Other, non- or less-lethal methods of protecting livestock from wolves have been under development for the past decade. The stylized VT (the abbreviation for Virginia Tech) is used primarily by the athletic department as a symbol for Virginia Tech athletic teams. Today, most of the hunting is done on the ground or from helicopters. Originally the teams were known as the "Fighting Gobblers" and the turkey motif was retained despite the name change. Poisons have been used to kill wolves during the extermination campaigns in Europe and America. The mascot is the Hokie Bird, a turkey-like creature. This practice is seen as highly controversial.

The word "Hokies" originated in the 1890s; see Hokies for more information. Some ranchers in the United States hunt wolves from helicopters or light planes, some of them calling it an effective method of controlling wolf numbers, others calling it a sport. The word "Hokies," which originated from the Old Hokie spirit yell, is often used interchangeably with "Fighting Gobblers" to refer to the sports team, fans, students, or alumni, although the former is the official usage. In the United States, as the timber wolf and other large predators been reintroduced, the USDA has been looking into the use of breeds such as the Akbash from Turkey, the Maremma from Italy, the Great Pyrenees from France and the Kuvasz from Hungary, among others. Its teams participate in the NCAA's Division I-A in the Atlantic Coast Conference, which the school joined in 2004 after leaving the Big East. Over several centuries in some countries, shepherds and dog breeders have used selective breeding to "create" large livestock-guarding dogs that can stand up to wolves preying on flocks. Virginia Tech's sports teams are called the Hokies; the mascot is the Hokie Bird. Wolf-secure fences, relocation (in some cases), or local extermination of wolves are today the only known methods to effectively stop livestock predation.

The limestone is mined from various quarries in Southwestern Virginia, Tennessee, and Alabama, one of which has been operated by the university since the 1950s. Sheep are frequently the most vulnerable, while horses and cattle are also at risk. Each block of Hokie Stone is some combination of gray, brown, black, pink, orange, and maroon. However, some wolves or packs can specialize in hunting livestock once the behavior is learned despite relative food supply. Hokie Stone is a medley of different colored limestone, often including dolomite. As long as there are enough prey, wolves seem to avoid taking livestock. On the Blacksburg campus, the majority of the buildings incorporate Hokie Stone as a building material. Wolves are hunted for their pelt, recreation, and population control.

The university also has several commonwealth branch campus centers: Hampton Roads (Virginia Beach), National Capital Region (Falls Church- Alexandria, Virginia), Richmond, Roanoke, and the Southwest Virginia Higher Education Center in Abingdon. However, some sources claim to have documented attacks, but in those cases, it is likely that the attacking wolves were suffering rabies, which is common in the areas in which the attacks occurred.^[13] In general, it is considered dangerous to approach or provoke wolves, as they are wild animals that will defend themselves if they feel threatened. The Virginia Tech campus is located within Blacksburg; the central campus is roughly bordered by Prices Fork Road to the northwest, Plantation Drive to the west, Main Street to the east, and 460-bypass to the south, though it has several thousand acres beyond the central campus. There has been no documented proof in the past 150 years that any wild, healthy wolf has killed a human; wolves are more likely to flee than to attack. The College of Agriculture and Life Sciences offers the only two-year associate's degree program on campus, in agricultural technology. The Mongols' greatest hero Genghis Khan called his people 'Clan of the Gray Wolf'. Bachelor's, master's, and doctoral programs are offered through the College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, the College of Architecture & Urban Studies, the College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences, the Pamplin College of Business, the College of Engineering, the College of Natural Resources, the College of Science, and the Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine. In Mongolian mythology, the Mongols believe that they are descended from a male Gray Wolf and a white doe.

From 1970 for the next five years, the student population grew from about 13,500 to 22,000. Despite their often negative image, wolves have variously been credited, in mythology, fiction and reality, with adopting, nursing, and raising human feral children, the most famous examples being Romulus and Remus and Mowgli of The Jungle Book. Similarly, the abbreviation VT is far more common today than VPI or VPI&SU, and appears everywhere from athletic uniforms (most notably on football helmets) to the university's Internet domain vt.edu. However, in the 20th century, with the new knowledge of wolves and the growing respect for Native American folklore, the animal has been generally depicted much more positively. In the early 1990s, the school quietly authorized the official use of Virginia Tech as equivalent to the full VPI&SU name; most school documents today use the shorter name, though diplomas still spell out the formal name. Human fear of the wolf is responsible for most of the trouble the species has received, and the reason it was nearly hunted out of existence. The new acronym of VPISU was derisively spoken as Vippy-sue by students and Hahn detractors. Norse mythology prominently includes three malevolent wolves: the giant Fenrisulfr, eldest child of Loki and the giantess Angrboda, (who was feared and hated by the Æsir); and Fenrisulfr's children Skoll and Hati, who will devour the sun and moon at Ragnarok.

As a compromise, the school added "and State University" to its name in 1970, yielding the current formal name of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. The iconic examples of this image are the Big Bad Wolf and the werewolf—a human that transforms into a wolf through magic or a curse, one that is shunned and reviled in regular society. As part of this move, Tech would have taken over control of the state's other land-grant institution, a historically black college in Ettrick, Virginia south of Richmond then called Virginia State College; this failed, and that school eventually became Virginia State University. In more modern western folklore, the wolf is a creature to be feared. One of Hahn's more controversial missions was only partially achieved; he had visions of renaming the school from VPI to Virginia State University, reflecting the status it had achieved as a full-fledged public research university. Wulfstan, Wolfgang, Wolfhard). The merger with Radford was dissolved in 1964, and in 1966, the school dropped the two-year Corps requirement for male students (in 1973, women were allowed to join the Corps; Tech was the first school in the nation to open its military wing to women). Many Germanic personal names used to and still include "wolf" as an element (e.g.

Marshall Hahn (1962-74) was responsible for many of the changes that shaped the modern institution of Virginia Tech. In Proto-Indo-European society, the wolf was probably associated with the warrior class, and the term was subject to taboo deformation, the Latin lupus being an example of a mutated form of the original Proto-Indo-European *wlkwos. President T. The gray wolf is also the focal point of Pan-Turkism and related mythology. Later, throughout the early 20th century, another rivalry developed between Virginia Tech and the University of Virginia (founded 1819). The wolf was also the revered totem animal of Ancient Rome (see Romulus and Remus and Lupercalia). This heartfelt and robust rivalry continued into the late 1970's, when Virginia Tech simply became too large and competitive in its athletic programs for VMI to continue competing (VMI enrolls 1,200 cadets and is the Nation's only all-cadet or classical state military college). The best examples of these myths can be seen in those of the Native Americans.

In fact, "The Military Classic of the South" began as a rivalry between VMI and VPI. In many ancient myths, the wolf was portrayed as brave, honorable, and intelligent. Shortly after its founding as a Military college, a rivalry began with VPI and Virginia Military Institute (founded 1839). There is an ongoing controversy, since regulations of the EU may make this impossible. Virginia Tech, for a time, was the largest university in the Commonwealth of Virginia until recently being surpassed by Virginia Commonwealth University and George Mason University. Reindeer farmers in Lapland are affected by the increase, and other parts of the population wish to lift bans on wolf hunting. VPI achieved full accreditation in 1923, and the requirement of participation in the Corps of Cadets was dropped from four years to two that same year (for men only; women, when they began enrolling in the 1920s, were never required to join). The situation is similar in Finland, where the number of wolves has been increasing over the past decades.

The "Agricultural and Mechanical College" section of the name was popularly omitted almost immediately, though the name was not officially changed to Virginia Polytechnic Institute until 1944 as part of a short-lived merger with what is now Radford University. Generally, the urban population is most positive to the wolf, while people actually living in the designated "wolf zones" are far more skeptical. McBryde, the school reorganized its academic programs into a traditional four-year college setup (including the renaming of the mechanics department to engineering); this led to an 1896 name change to Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Polytechnic Institute. It is difficult to hinder the wolves from preying on the sheep, and in areas where the wolf has been reintroduced many farmers have quit. Under the 1891-1907 presidency of John M. In Norway the situation is further complicated, since sheep farmers use the forests as pasture for their animals during summer. The school considers this to be its founding date, although some would like to date it to 1851 because the school purchased land and facilities from a private Methodist school on the same site. In spite of the fact that attacks on people are virtually nonexistent historically, and hundreds of dogs are killed each year in hunting accidents, the wolves' possible threat to dogs and people is often cited by these people as a strong argument against the wolf's right to exist in Swedish forests.

Founded under the provisions of the Morrill Act, the institution became a state-supported land grant military institute called the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College in 1872. It has been argued that modern Scandinavian wolves are recent arrivals from Russia, not the remnants of the old wolf tribes. . The opponents are generally the rural working class who fear competition for Roe Deer and moose; they consider the wolf to be a foreign element, much like immigrants.
. In Sweden, there is a long and ongoing conflict between some groups who claim that the wolf has no place in nature, and that it has been reintroduced by the Swedish government with some sort of secret agenda. Virginia Tech was ranked 78th in US News and World Report's Top 100 US Universities and tied for 34th among all US public institutions.[1] In 2004, The Times ranked Virginia Tech as one of the top 200 universities in the world.[2]. With the return of the wolf, these bigger coyotes are forced to return to their previous niche, or face attacks from wolves.

Virginia Tech has the largest full-time student population in the Commonwealth of Virginia and is best known for its academic programs in agriculture, engineering, architecture, veterinary medicine, and recently for the success of its football program. As they started to fill in the niche of the top predator, they started to grow larger. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, (also referred to as VPI or more commonly Virginia Tech) is a research university in Blacksburg, Virginia, USA, in the New River Valley of western Virginia near the Appalachian Mountains. Where wolves are reintroduced after a long absence, it has a marked influence on the coyote population. Camarda, Class of 1983 (Ph.D) -- Astronaut on board the space shuttle Discovery for the STS-114 mission. Fish and Wildlife Service. Charles J. Reports by wildlife biologists working for the National Park Service who stated that they had seen, though rarely, wolves in Yellowstone National Park, and had photographic proof of their limited presence prior to the "reintroduction", were essentially suppressed by the U.S.

Mark Embree - Rhodes Scholar, currently Assistant Professor of Mathematics at Rice University. Recent studies have shown that the wolf would have enjoyed greater protection had it been allowed to repopulate areas on its own without human intervention. William Lewis - Rhodes Scholar, Founding Director of McKinsey Global Institute. This includes several studies looking into the feasibility of reintroducing the wolf in places farther east, in areas like Adirondack State Park in New York and certain areas of Maine. Richard Baker -- game designer. Fish and Wildlife Service, which oversees threatened and endangered species within the United States. Asselstine, Class of 1970, Commissioner of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission during Three Mile Island incident. Government, primarily by the U.S.

James K. In fact, wolf reintroduction was pushed hard by the U.S. Crouch, Class of 1968 (MS) and 1971 (PhD), NASA astronaut. It is curious to note that some ranchers prefer reintroduction, as they can kill wolves that eat their livestock and get reimbursement for their losses, while wild animals are protected by law. Roger K. Not only are they slowly but surely coming back naturally from Canada, they are also being successfully reintroduced in some states such as Idaho and Wyoming. Homer Hickam, Class of 1964, NASA employee and author of Rocket Boys. In the United States, wolves are repopulating where they were eradicated, and numbers have been increasing in Alaska and Minnesota, where some packs remained in the deep forests despite bounty hunting and other past eradication efforts.

Richardson, Class of 1958 (BS) and 1960 (MS), physicist at Cornell University, shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1996 for the discovery of superfluidity in He-3. Such mediums tend to emphasize the wolf as an affectionate, devoted parent and fraternal animal that is deserving of our respect and protection as integral members of our global biodiversity. Robert C. This onslaught of pro-wolf publicity, including that which is procured from nature documentaries and books, has undoubtedly played a role in changing attitudes for the better. Phillips, Class of 1947, Chairman and CEO of Raytheon Corp. David Mech and Luigi Boitani have arguably been the two leaders in contemporary wolf research. Thomas L. Biologists L.

Chris Kraft, Class of 1944, NASA architect of Mission Control and the first flight director. The large amount of research done on wolves in the last half century has also helped to educate people in a way that helps them to realize how sociologically similar humans are to wolves, and how people have little to fear from these naturally cautious, complex animals. Cutchins III, Class of 1944, Chairman and CEO of Sovran Bank. Even this undertaking has it drawbacks, because, as naturalists point out, tourists sometimes intrude on wolf habitat, consequently disturbing them in an attempt to communicate with them in this manner. Clifford A. In certain parks, tourists enjoy participating in wolf howls, in which a person or a group attempts to imitate a wolf's howl well enough to induce a response from resident wolves. Garvin, Class of 1943 (BS) and 1947 (MS), Chairman and CEO of Exxon Corp. Today, organizations such as the International Wolf Center, Defenders of Wildlife, and Mission: Wolf attempt to educate people about the true nature of wolves, and such action has proven helpful to past reintroduction efforts, especially in places such as Yellowstone National Park.

Clifton C. Society as a whole has begun to realize the morality in attempting to make up for centuries of undue persecution, and knows of the justification behind trying to return a portion of our ecological integrity back to the American landscape. Pamplin, Sr, Class of 1933, CEO of Georgia Pacific Corp. Accordingly, while the stereotype of wolves as malicious, wanton killers and vile, worthless beasts still has influence in certain circles, a significant portion of the public has developed a more positive opinion of wolves as interesting, valuable, and noble animals. Robert B. This increased awareness exposed the beneficial nature of wolves, and helped lead to their eventual endangered classification and subsequent reintroduction efforts. Donaldson Brown, Class of 1902, financial executive and corporate director with both DuPont and General Motors. David Mech, and Adolph Murie helped to shift the wolf's image to that of an intelligent and affectionate creature essential to the proper functioning of a conventional North American ecosystem.

Boykin, USA, Class of 1971, Assistant Undersecretary of Defense for Intelligence. The works of wolf supporters such as Farley Mowat, L. Lieutenant General William G. In the late 20th century, American society underwent a dramatic change of heart. Element, North American Aerospace Defense Command. In Alaska, where they are not protected by the Act, their populations continue to be controlled (usually by aerial hunting) in an effort to increase yields for hunters. Inge, USA, Class of 1969, Deputy Commander, United States Northern Command, and Vice Commander, U.S. In a somewhat novel development, they have been allowed to naturally propagate in the upper Midwest, and have been reintroduced to areas in Wyoming, Idaho, and Arizona.

Lieutenant General Joseph R. in some form or another by a national endangered species bill, the latest of which is the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Smith, USAF, Class of 1969. Since the late 1960s, wolves have been protected in the U.S. Lieutenant General Lance L. Ergo, they were destroyed completely in the contiguous 48 states, with the exception of Minnesota, over the subsequent decades. Richards, Four Star General, Class of 1956, Deputy Commander in Chief of US European Command. It is somewhat unbelievable that wolves managed to garner such an incredible amount of hatred for having done little else than what any species would do if both its habitat and main food source were destroyed.

General Thomas C. The corpses of affected animals would then themselves become poisonous, which tended to result in a rather long chain reaction of death. Army Missile Command. Besides traps, snares, and other mechanical methods, hunters would line carcasses with poison (usually strychnine), which would then kill the animals that preyed upon it. Moore, USA, Class of 1952, Commanding General of the U.S. To accomplish this, there was no limit to the extent hunters and trappers were willing to go in order to kill predators in large numbers. Lieutenant General Robert L. With few vouching for them, wolves and other predators were destroyed en masse, resulting in a so-called "hunters paradise" free from irritating predators.

Air Forces in Europe, Southern Area. Eventually, North American society's perception of the wolf was one defined by indifference or outright hatred. Druen,Jr., USAF, Class of 1951,commander of Allied Air Forces Southern Europe and deputy commander in chief, U.S. When the wolves preyed on what little of their natural prey was left, hunters complained; when they then began preying on the cattle, ranchers, of course, complained, too. Lieutenant General Walter D. Humans destroyed the vast majority of their habitat and food source in North America, replacing forests with farms and wild ungulates with cattle. Cooksey, USA, Class of 1943. Wolves, for a time, were partially valued for their fur, but in the majority of circumstances (and in some instances today), they were viewed as wholly worthless and decidedly despicable creatures.

Lieutenant General Howard H. During this time, the wilderness was perceived as something to be conquered, settled, and cultivated, as through Manifest Destiny or by man's inherent worldly right. Wilson, USAF, Class of 1942. European folklore exacerbated this negative image, which was brought over to North America as it was settled. Lieutenant General Joseph G. Traditionally, humans have viewed wolves negatively, perceiving them to be dangerous or as nuisances to be destroyed. Elder, Jr., USA, Class of 1941. The relationship between people and wolves has had a very long and turbulent history.

Lieutenant General John H. At the same time, this balance between wolves and their prey prevents the mass starvation of all species involved. Robinson, USMC, Class of 1940. Wolves are sensitive to fluctuations in prey abundance, making them likely to experience minor changes within their own populations. Lieutenant General Wallace H. Wolves are susceptible to the same infections that affect domestic dogs, such as mange, heartworm, rabies and canine distemper, and such diseases can become epidemic, drastically reducing the wolf population in an area. Pick, USA, Class of 1914. The most significant mortality factors for grown wolves are hunting and poaching by humans, car accidents, and wounds suffered while hunting prey.

Lieutenant General Lewis A. Pups die when food is scarce; they can also fall prey to other predators such as bears, or, less likely, coyotes, foxes, or other wolves. Maj Lloyd Williams, Class of 1907, Williams has been attributed with one of the more famous quotes of World War I: "Retreat? Hell! We just got here!". High mortality rates result in a relatively low life expectancy for wolves on an overall basis. Richard Shea, class of 1948, Awarded the Medal of Honor for actions as an army first lieutenant at Pork Chop Hill during the Korean War. Wolves that reach maturity typically live between 6 and 9 years in the wild, although in captivity they can live to be twice that age. Femoyer, class of 1944, Eagle Scout Awarded the Medal of Honor for actions as an Army Air Force B-17 navigator on a bombing mission over Germany. Wolves typically reach sexual maturity after two or three years, at which point many of them will feel compelled to leave their birth packs and search out mates and territories of their own.

Robert E. Letting the pups fight for the right to eat results in a secondary ranking being formed among them, and lets them practice the dominance/submission rituals that will be essential to their future survival in pack life. Monteith, Class of 1944, Awarded the Medal of Honor for actions as an army lieutenant at D-Day during World War II. After a few more weeks, the pups are permitted to join the adults if they are able (they tag along as observers until about eight months, by which time they are large enough to actively participate), and will receive first dibs on anything killed, their low ranks notwithstanding. Jimmie W. An adult or two will stay behind to ensure the safety of the pups. Thomas, class of 1944, member of Virginia Tech's Athletic Hall of Fame, Awarded the Medal of Honor for action on Bougainville Island in World War II. After two months, the restless pups will be moved to a rendezvous site, which gives them a safe place to reside while most of the adults go out to hunt.

Herbert J. ^[12]. Gregory, Class of 1923, Awarded the Medal of Honor for actions as an army sergeant during the Meuse Argonne Offensive in World War I. During the first weeks of development, the mother usually stays with her litter alone, but eventually most members of the pack will contribute to the rearing of the pups in some way. Earle D. They begin eating regurgitated foods at four weeks – by which time their milk teeth have emerged – and are weaned by six weeks. Gaujot, Class of 1894, Awarded the Medal of Honor for actions on the Mexican Border in 1914, the only soldier ever awarded the Medal for actions of a peacekeeping nature, brother of Antoine Gaujot. During this time, the pups will become more independent, and will eventually begin to explore the area immediately outside the den before gradually roaming up to a mile away from it.

Julien E. Pups reside in the den, where they are born, and stay there until they reach about 8 weeks of age (the den is usually near an open water source, and has an open "room" at the end of an underground/hillside tunnel that can be up to a couple meters long). Gaujot, Class of 1901, Awarded the Medal of Honor for actions as an army corporal at the Battle of San Mateo during the Philippine Insurrection. There are 1–14 pups per litter, with the average litter size being about four to six. Antoine A.M. The gestation period lasts 60 to 63 days, and the pups are born blind, deaf, and completely dependent on their mother. Keion Carpenter--football, defensive back for the Atlanta Falcons. Under normal circumstances, the alpha female will try to prevent this by aggressively dominating other females and physically separating them from the alpha male.

Franklin Stubbs--baseball first baseman. A pack usually procures one litter, though sometimes multiple litters will be born if the alpha male mates with one or more subordinate females. Johnny Oates--former baseball catcher, manager for the Baltimore Orioles. Wolves, unlike dogs, only mate once a year. Michael Vick--football, quarterback for the Atlanta Falcons. Mating usually occurs between January and May, happening later in the year as latitude increases. Bruce Smith--former football defensive linesman for the Buffalo Bills and the Washington Redskins. This kind of organization also occurs in other pack-hunting canids, such as the Dhole and the African Hunting Dog.

Kevin Jones--football running back; drafted by the Detroit Lions of the NFL. Normally, only the alpha pair of the pack breeds. Antonio Freeman--former football wide receiver. In one study, less than 1 out of 10 chases of moose resulted in a successful kill.^[11] Therefore, wolves must hunt almost constantly to sustain themselves. André Davis, Class of 2001--football wide receiver for the Cleveland Browns and the New England Patriots. Even so, pack hunting efforts are usually fruitless. Dell Curry--basketball player, shooting guard. Probability dictates that these tactics are much more useful against lame, young, or old prey animals, and so it is these individuals that are most likely to fall to wolf predation.

Vernell "Bimbo" Coles--member of the United States 1988 Olympic Basketball team; played in the National Basketball Association, ending his career with the Miami Heat. Realizing this, wolves are not likely to spend much time testing, chasing, or harassing such individuals. Frank Beamer, Class of 1969--football Coach at Virginia Tech. Healthy, fit individuals will stand their ground against wolves, and are simply better able to effectively defend themselves, increasing the possibility of injury for the wolves involved. Hence, while wolves are certainly capable of culling the least fit from the communities of animals on which they prey, the process certainly doesn't target the feeble or the ill-suited to an outright degree. Less fit animals typically include the elderly, diseased, and young, and though these individuals are among the most likely to fall victim to predation, healthy animals may also succumb through circumstance or by chance.

Wolf packs test large populations of prey species by inducing a chase, thereby picking and ganging up on an individual that they perceive to be less fit. When pursuing large prey, wolves generally attack from all angles, targeting the necks and sides of such animals. ^[10]. In fact, wolves rarely eat on a daily basis, and so they make up for this by eating up to 20 lb (9 kg) of meat when they get the chance.

They also prey on rodents and small animals in a limited manner, as a typical wolf requires between 3 and 10 lb (1.3 to 4.5 kg) of meat per day for sustenance; however, this certainly doesn't mean that a wolf will get the chance to eat everyday. Wolves' diets include, but are not limited to, elk, caribou, moose, deer, and other large ungulates. Solitary wolves depend on small animals, capturing them by pouncing and pinning them to the ground with their front paws – a common technique among canids such as foxes and coyotes. Through meticulous cooperation, a pack of wolves is able to pursue large prey for several hours before relenting, though the success rate of such chases is rather low.

Pack hunting methods range from surprise attacks to long-lasting chases, though they strongly favor the latter. Packs of wolves hunt any large herbivores in their range, while lone wolves are apt to consuming smaller animals due to their relative inability to catch anything larger. The wolf is a carnivore. Howling becomes less indiscriminate as wolves learn to distinguish howling pack members from rival wolves.

Such indiscriminate howling usually has a communicative intent, and has no adverse consequences so early in a wolf's life. The pups themselves begin howling towards the end of July, and can be provoked into howling sessions relatively easily over the following two months. Studies also show that wolves howl more frequently during the breeding season and subsequent rearing process. Observations of wolf packs suggest that howling occurs most often during the twilight hours, preceding the adults' departure to the hunt and following their return.

For example, confrontation could mean bad news if the rival pack gravely underestimates the howling pack's numbers. This concealment of numbers makes a listening rival pack wary of what action to take. During such choral sessions, wolves will howl at different tones and varying pitches, which tends to prevent a listener from accurately estimating the number of wolves involved. Some scientists speculate that such group sessions strengthen the wolves' social bonds and camaraderie—similar to community singing among humans.

Wolves will also howl for communal reasons. Thus, wolves tend to howl with great care. Adjacent packs may respond to each others' howls, which can mean trouble for the smaller of the two. As a rule of thumb, large packs will more readily draw attention to themselves than will smaller packs.

This behavior is also stimulated when a pack has something to protect, such as a fresh kill. Furthermore, howling helps to summon pack members to a specific location.^[9] Howling can also serve as a declaration of territory, as portrayed by a dominant wolf's tendency to respond to a human imitation of a "rival" individual in an area that the wolf considers its own. Howling helps pack members keep in touch, allowing them to effectively communicate in thickly forested areas or over great distances. Wolves howl for several reasons.

This ranges from subtle signals–such as a slight shift in weight–to the obvious, like rolling on the back as a sign of submission.^[8]. Wolves communicate not only by sound (such as yipping, growling, and howling), but also by body language. This kind of dominance encounter is more common in the winter months, when mating occurs. The loser of such a confrontation is frequently chased away from the pack or, rarely, may be killed as other aggressive wolves contribute to the insurgency.

While the majority of wolf aggression is non-damaging and ritualized, a high-stakes fight can easily result in injury for either or both parties. On the other hand, the challenged individual may choose to fight back, with varying degrees of intensity. An older wolf may simply choose to give way when an ambitious challenger presents itself, yielding its position without bloodshed. Loss of rank can happen gradually or suddenly.

In large packs full of easygoing wolves, or in a group of juvenile wolves, rank order may shift almost constantly, or even be circular (e.g., animal A dominates animal B, who dominates animal C, who dominates animal A). Rank, who holds it, and how it is enforced varies widely between packs and between individual animals. Wolves prefer psychological warfare to physical confrontations, meaning that high-ranking status is based more on personality or attitude than on size or physical strength. Rank order is established and maintained through a series of ritualized fights and posturing best described as ritual bluffing.

Most, males particularly, will disperse, however. Some mature individuals, usually females, may choose to stay in the original pack so as to reinforce it and help rear more pups. All the wolves in the pack assist in raising wolf pups. Usually, only the alpha pair is able to successfully rear a litter of pups (other wolves in a pack may breed, and may even produce pups, but usually they lack the freedom or the resources to raise the pups to maturity).

The death of one alpha does not affect the status of the other alpha, who will quickly take another mate. While most alpha pairs are monogamous with each other, there are exceptions.^[7] An alpha animal may preferentially mate with a lower-ranking animal, especially if the other alpha is closely related (a brother or sister, for example). In addition, one wolf typically assumes the role of omega, the lowest-ranking member of a pack.^[6] These individuals absorb the greatest amount of aggression from the rest of the pack, and consequently enjoy comparatively few individual privileges. In larger packs, there may be also be a beta wolf or wolves – a "second-in-command" to the alphas.

It is the baby-sitter and usually more puppy than wolf. The omega is the lowest. There are verious subordinates, who dominate the omega. Below the alphas are the betas, who will take over breeding responsibility as well as the pack if the alpha cannot for any reason.

The rest of the pack usually follows. The alphas do not give the other wolves orders; rather, they simply have the most freedom in choosing where to go, what to do, and when to do it. The alpha pair has the greatest amount of social freedom among all the pack members, but they are not "leaders" in the human sense of the term. Most dogs, except perhaps large, specially bred attack dogs, do not stand much of a chance against a pack of wolves protecting its territory from an unwanted intrusion.

Dispersing individuals must avoid the territories of other wolves because intruders on occupied territories are chased away or killed, a behavior that may explain wolf "predation" of dogs. Lone wolves searching for other individuals can travel very long distances seeking out suitable territories. New packs are formed when a wolf leaves its birth pack and claims a territory. The hierarchy affects all activity in the pack, from which wolf eats first to which is allowed to breed (generally only the alpha pair).

Packs can contain between two and 20 wolves, though an average pack consists of six or seven.^[4][5] The hierarchy of the pack is relatively strict, with the alphas at the top and the omega at the bottom. The size of the pack may change over time and is controlled by several factors, including habitat, personalities of individual wolves within a pack, and food supply. However, emerging new theories suggest the pack strategy has less to do with hunting than with reproductive success. This social structure was originally thought to allow the wolf to take prey many times its size.

Wolves function as social predators and hunt in packs organized according to a strict social hierarchy and led by an alpha male and alpha female. Therefore, any injury to the jaw line or teeth could devastate an individual, dooming it to starvation or inutility. inch of pressure, a wolf's teeth are its main weapons as well as its primary tools. Powered by 1500lbs/sq.

The long canine teeth are also important, in that they are designed to hold and subdue the prey. The mandible has six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars.^[3] The fourth upper premolars and first lower molars constitute the carnassial teeth, which are essential tools for shearing flesh. Wolves and most larger dogs share identical dentition: The maxilla has six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and four molars. Also, precaudal glands at the base of the tail are present in wolves, whereas they are not in dogs.

Larger paw size, yellow eyes, longer legs, and bigger teeth further distinguish adult wolves from other species of canids, particularly dogs. Wolves also differ in certain skull dimensions, having a smaller orbital angle, for example, than dogs (>53 degrees for dogs compared to <45 degrees for wolves) while possessing a comparatively larger brain capacity. Wolves have stout, blocky muzzles that help distinguish them from coyotes and dogs. Though extremely unusual, it is possible for an adult wolf to retain its blue-colored eyes.

At birth, wolf pups tend to have darker fur and blue eyes that typically change to a yellow-gold or orange color when the pups are 8-16 weeks old. At the beginning of life, wolf puppies cannot eat solid food, regulate their body temperature, or even urinate without the help of their mother. The birthing itself takes about three hours for the average litter of five. She will prepare at least one den, always on high ground and near water.

The gestation period of a mother is sixty-three days. Fur color sometimes corresponds with a given wolf population's environment; for example, all-white wolves are much more common in areas with perennial snow cover.^[2] Aging wolves acquire a grayish tint in their coats. A multicolor coat characteristically lacks any clear pattern except for the dark markings around the eyes. These colors tend to mix in many populations to form predominantly blended individuals, though it is certainly not uncommon for an individual or an entire population to be entirely one color (usually all black or all white).

Coloration varies greatly, and runs from gray to gray-brown, all the way through the canine spectrum of white, red, brown, and black. Females tend to keep their winter coats further into the spring than males. Wolves have distinct winter and summer pelages that alternate in spring and autumn. The second is a dense, water-resistant undercoat that insulates.

The first layer consists of tough guard hairs designed to repel water and dirt. A wolf sometimes seems more massive than it actually is due to its bulky coat, which is made of two layers. Furthermore, scent glands between a wolf's toes help it to keep track of its location, and others of its whereabouts. Bristled hairs and blunt claws enhance grip on slippery surfaces, and special blood vessels keep paw pads from freezing.

The front paws are larger than the hind paws, and feature a fifth digit, a dewclaw, that is absent on hind paws. Wolves are digitigrade, and so the relative largeness of their feet helps to better distribute their weight on snowy surfaces. There is slight webbing between their toes, which moves them over snowy ground like a duck through water. Wolf paws are designed to traverse easily through snow, giving wolves an advantage over hampered prey.

While sprinting thus, wolves can cover up to 5 m (16 ft) per bound. They are capable of covering several miles trotting at about a 10 km/h (6 mph) pace, though they have been known to reach speeds approaching 65 km/h (40 mph) during a chase (wolves only run fast when testing potential prey). Narrow chests and powerful backs and legs contribute to the wolf's proficiency for efficient locomotion. Wolves are built for stamina, possessing features tailored for long-distance travel.

Wolves measure between 1 and 1.5 meters (39 to 59 inches) from nose to tail tip, with the tail itself consisting of approximately one quarter of overall body length. Extreme specimens reaching 80kg (176 lbs.) have been recorded in Alaska and Canada, though some people claim to have seen larger anomalous individuals (90+kg) roaming the Yukon, where some of the largest wolves in North America can be found. Roughly speaking, Males average about 45 kg (100 pounds), while females usually weigh around twenty percent less. Wolf weight and size tend to increase proportionally with worldly latitude, with height varying between 0.6 and 0.9 meters (24 to 35 inches) at the shoulder, and weight typically ranging from 30–55 kg (65-120 pounds), making wolves the largest among all wild canids.

. Carolus Linnaeus gave the wolf the scientific name Canis lupus in the 18th century.^[1]. They continue to be hunted in many areas of the world as perceived threats to livestock and human well-being, as well as for sport. , they are listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act of 1973.

In the contiguous U.S., with the exception of Minnesota and Wisconsin (where they have a threatened status). A list of potential wolf habitat reflects their adaptability as a species, and includes temperate forests, mountains, tundra, taiga, and grasslands. Gray wolves, being keystone predators, are integral components of the ecosystems to which they typically belong. Today, for a variety of human-related reasons involving widespread habitat destruction and excessive hunting, wolves inhabit only a very limited portion of their former range.

Gray wolves were once abundant and distributed over much of North America, Eurasia, and the Middle East. The wolf shares a common ancestry with the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), and, according to most experts, is likely the progenitor of all dogs as they exist today (in which case, the domestic dog would more accurately be classified as Canis lupus familiaris). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus; other forms: Timber Wolf, Wolf; British English: Grey Wolf) is a mammal of the Canidae family. pallipes) - From India to the Middle East.

l. Indian Wolf (C. occidentalis) - Western Canada, Alaska, and reintroduced into North West USA. l.

Mackenzie Valley Wolf (C. nubilus) - Far West and Eastern Canada, North East USA. l. Great Plains Wolf (C.

lycaon) - South East Canada. l. Eastern Timber Wolf (C. lupus) - from China, Mongolia, Russia and Eastern Europe to Germany, Spain and Portugal.

l. Eurasian Wolf (C. Previously mistaken for golden jackals. lupaster) - North Egypt and North East Libya.

l. Egyptian Wolf (C. italicus) - Italian Apennines. l.

Italian Wolf (C. Extinct. hodophilax) - South Japan. l.

Honshu Wolf (C. Extinct. hattai) - North Japan. l.

Hokkaido Wolf (C. cubanensis) - Russia, Georgia, between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea. l. Caspian Sea Wolf (C.

communis) - Central Russia. l. Russian Wolf (C. baileyi) - Reintroduced into Arizona.

l. Mexican Wolf (C. arctos) - Canadian Arctic islands and Greenland. l.

Arctic Wolf (C. arabs) - Arabian Peninsular. l. Arabian Wolf (C.

albus) - Northern Russia. l. Tundra Wolf (C. Gray Wolf (Canis lupus)