Sword

In the following cases, the sword stands for arms in general, and has often been retained as a symbol even after it had in operational practice been replaced with firearms etcetera. In philosophy, theoreticism refers to the overuse of theory. Another example of this metaphorical significance comes in the old saying "The pen is mightier than the sword" -- attributed to Edward Bulwer-Lytton. In the humanities, theory is often used as an abbreviation for critical theory or literary theory, referring to continental philosophy's aesthetics or its attempts to understand the structure of society and to conceptualize alternatives. Ewart Oakeshott in The Sword in The Age of Chivalry (1964, revised 1981) introduced a system of classification for medieval sword blades into types, numbered X – XXII as a continuation of Wheeler's system. Theories exist not only in the so-called hard sciences; but in all fields of academic study, from philosophy to music to literature. Jan Petersen in De Norske Vikingsverd ("The Norwegian Viking Swords", 1919) introduced the most widely-used classification. This sets a fundamental limit to the applicability of any mathematical system.

Certain martial arts styles, such as kendo, use shinai as their primary weapons, both in training and in competition. However, Gödel's incompleteness theorem shows that no consistent theory capable of defining the concept of natural numbers can derive all true statements about those numbers. Special sparring weapons, such as the bamboo shinai and the steel federschwerter, were also devised and used. Obvious examples include arithmetic (abstracting the concept of number), geometry (the concept of space), and probability (the concept of randomness). These were known as wasters in Europe and bokken in Japan. The resulting theorems often provide solutions to real-world problems which correspond to the original abstraction. In both Europe and Asia, wooden "swords" were created to practice fencing without the physical danger of a real sword. A typical theory will present certain axioms and rules, corresponding to a useful or interesting abstraction, and then derive non-obvious theorems from those axioms.

A machete as a tool resembles such a single-edged sword and serves to cut through thick vegetation, and indeed many of the terms listed above describe weapons that originated as farmers' tools used on the battlefield. A theory in this sense is a set of statements closed under certain rules of inference. Many of these essentially refer to identical weapons, and the different names may relate to their use in different countries at different times. The term "theory" also has a formal usage in mathematics, particularly in mathematical logic and model theory. Other terms include falchion, scimitar, cutlass, or mortuary sword. Examples include group theory, set theory, Lebesgue integration theory and field theory. Europeans also frequently refer to their own single-edged weapons as swords--generically backswords, including sabres. This knowledge consists of axioms, definitions, theorems and computational techniques, all related in some way by tradition or practice.

However, general usage of the term remains inconsistent and it has important cultural overtones, so that commentators almost universally recognize the single-edged Asian weapons (dāo 刀, Katana 刀) as "swords", simply because they have very similar prestige to that which is attached to the European sword. In mathematics, the word theory is used informally to refer to certain distinct bodies of knowledge about mathematics. One strict definition of a sword restricts it to a double-edged weapon used for both slashing and stabbing. One can sum up all this by saying that the criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability, or refutability, or testability."--end quote.
. (I later described such a rescuing operation as a "conventionalist twist" or a "conventionalist stratagem."). As noted above, the terms longsword, broad sword and great sword (and Gaelic claymore) are used relative to the era under consideration and do themselves designate a particular type of sword. Such a procedure is always possible, but it rescues the theory from refutation only at the price of destroying, or at least lowering, its scientific status.

For any other type than listed below, and even for uses other than as a weapon, see the article Sword-like object. Some genuinely testable theories, when found to be false, are still upheld by their admirers — for example by introducing ad hoc some auxiliary assumption, or by reinterpreting the theory ad hoc in such a way that it escapes refutation. The main distinguishing characteristics include blade shape (cross-section, tapering and length), shape and size of hilt and pommel, age and place of origin. 7. Swords can fall into categories of varying scope. (I now speak in such cases of "corroborating evidence."). The tang consists of the extension of the blade structure through the hilt. Confirming evidence should not count except when it is the result of a genuine test of the theory; and this means that it can be presented as a serious but unsuccessful attempt to falsify the theory.

It may also have a tassel or sword knot. 6. The pommel in addition to improving the grip, can also be used as a blunt instrument at close range. Testability is falsifiability; but there are degrees of testability: some theories are more testable, more exposed to refutation, than others; they take, as it were, greater risks. The hilt is the collective term of the parts allowing the handling of the blade, consisting of the grip, the pommel, and in post-Viking Age swords usually a crossguard (called cruciform hilts). Every genuine test of a theory is an attempt to falsify it, or to refute it. Middle Eastern swords, intended for use with the arm bent, had a smaller radius. 5.

European swords, intended for use at arm's length, had a radius of curvature of around a meter. Irrefutability is not a virtue of a theory (as people often think) but a vice. This allowed the blade to have a sawing effect rather than simply delivering a heavy cut. A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non-scientific. with an edge, have been curved with the radius of curvature equal to the distance from the swordman's body at which it was to be used. 4. From the 18th century onwards swords intended for slashing, i.e. The more a theory forbids, the better it is.

On Japanese blades the mark appears on the tang under the handle. Every "good" scientific theory is a prohibition: it forbids certain things to happen. The ricasso normally bears the maker's mark. 3. On some large weapons, such as the German zweihander, a leather cover surrounded the ricasso, and a swordsman might grip it in one hand to make the weapon more easily wielded in close-quarters combat. Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory — an event which would have refuted the theory. Many swords have no ricasso. 2.

The ricasso or shoulder identifies a short section of blade immediately forward of the guard that is left completely unsharpened, and can be gripped with a finger to increase tip control. It is easy to obtain confirmations, or verifications, for nearly every theory — if we look for confirmations. The section in between the CoP and the CoB is the middle. 1. The part of the blade between the Center of Percussion (CoP) and the point is called the weak of the blade, and that between the Center of Balance (CoB) and the hilt the strong. Karl Popper described the characteristics of a scientific theory as:. The blade may taper more or less sharply towards a point, used for thrusting. The fewer which are matched, the less scientific it is; those that meet only several or none at all, cannot be said to be scientific in any meaningful sense of the word.

The blade may have grooves or fullers for the purpose of lightening the blade while allowing it to retain its strength, in the same manner as an "I" beam in construction. Theories considered scientific meet at least most, but ideally all, of the above criteria. Some hilt designs define which edge is the 'long' one, while more symmetrical designs allow the long and short edges to be inverted by turning the sword. This is true of such established theories as special and general relativity, quantum mechanics, plate tectonics, evolution, etc. The blade is usually double-edged; when handling the sword, the long or true edge is the one used for straight cuts or strikes, while the short or false edge is the one used for backhand strikes. In science, a body of descriptions of knowledge is usually only called a theory once it has a firm empirical basis, i.e., it. Three types of attacks can be performed with the blade: striking, cutting, and thrusting. This falsification, though, did not necessarily mean that only one alternative theory was necessarily the "correct" replacement — both the Copernican system and the Tychonic system predicted the phases of Venus.

The name scabbard applies to the case which houses the sword when not in use. Evidence, in the form of Galileo's observation of the phases of Venus in 1610, was produced which was completely incompatible with the predictions set forth by the theory. The sword consists of the blade and the hilt. A canonical example of a disproved theory is the geocentric model of the universe proposed by Ptolemy. Cavalry charges still occurred as late as World War II during which Japanese and Pacific Islanders also occasionally used swords, but by then an enemy armed with machine guns, barbed wire and armored vehicles would usually completely outmatch swordsmen. A law is a general statement based on observations. The last units of British heavy cavalry switched to using armoured vehicles as late as 1938. Theories and laws are not rungs in a ladder of truth, but different sets of data.

For example, the British Army formally adopted a completely new design of cavalry sword in 1908, almost the last change in British Army weapons before the outbreak of the war. This, however, rests on a mistaken assumption of what theories and laws are. Swords continued in use, but increasingly limited to military officers and ceremonial uniforms, although most armies retained heavy cavalry until well after World War I. Some scientific theories (such as the theory of gravity) are so widely accepted that they are often seen as laws. Even as a personal sidearm, the sword began to lose its pre-eminence in the late 18th century, paralleling the development of reliable handguns. In scientific theories, this then leads to research, in combination with auxiliary and other hypotheses (see scientific method), which may then eventually lead to a theory. The sword served more as a weapon of self-defence than for use on the battlefield, and the military importance of swords steadily decreased during the Modern Age. Theories start out with empirical observations such as "sometimes water turns into ice." At some point, there is a need or curiosity to find out why this is, which leads to a theoretical/scientific phase.

The French martial art la canne developed to fight with canes and swordsticks and has now evolved into a sport. Instead, theories remain standing until they are disproved, at which point they are thrown out altogether or modified to fit the additional data. Some examples of canes—those known as swordsticks—incorporate a concealed blade. In science, a theory is not considered fact or infallible, because we can never assume we know all there is to know. As the wearing of swords fell out of fashion, canes took their place in a gentleman's wardrobe. A theory is an established paradigm that explains all or much of the data we have and offers valid predictions that can be tested. Both the smallsword and the rapier remained popular dueling swords well into the 18th century. But in science and generally in academic usage, a theory is much more than that.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the shorter smallsword became an essential fashion accessory in European countries, and most wealthy men carried one. As noted above, in common usage a theory is defined as little more than a guess or a hypothesis. Both the rapier and the Italian schiavona developed the crossguard into a basket for hand protection. The process of accepting theories, or of extending existing theory, is part of the scientific method. The rapier evolved from the Spanish espada ropera in the 16th century. Theories are more likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. The sword in this time period was the most personal weapon, the most prestigious, and the most versatile for close combat, but it came to find a greater role in civilian self-defense than in military use as technology changed warfare. Theories which are simpler, and more mathematically elegant, tend to be accepted over theories which are complex.

In the 16th century, the large Zweihänder concluded the trend of ever increasing sword sizes (mostly due to the beginning of the decline of plate armor and the advent of firearms), and the early Modern Age returned to lighter one-handed weapons. Theories can become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and avoid incorrect ones. Though capable of penetrating even the thickest armor, it ultimately proved too unwieldy for common use. A theory is also different from a physical law in that the latter is a model of reality, whereas the former is an explanatory statement of what has been observed, explaining the why and how of the observed physical law. His "Vervierfachen Sie hat gereicht Blatt" was a sword nearly twelve feet in length, requiring two men to wield effectively. The latter is a statement of mathematical fact which logically follows from a set of axioms. The largest recorded sword was that forged by Gustav Heinshreck in the 16th century. The former is a model of physical events and cannot be proved from basic axioms.

Though light blades were retained by cavalry for some time, the infantry blade was eventually abandoned entirely. A theory is different from a theorem. As armor thickened, blacksmiths labored to increase the size of the sword, resulting in such weapons as the bastard and two-handed sword. Most theory evolves from hypotheses, but the reverse is not true: many hypotheses turn out to be false and so do not evolve into theory. This sword gradually became obsolete as thicker forms of armor rendered the piercing blade ineffective. There are two uses of the word theory; a supposition which is not backed by observation is known as a conjecture, and if backed by observation it is a hypothesis. The estoc became popular because of its ability to thrust into the gaps in-between plates of armor. In engineering practise, to avoid confusion with a physical model (e.g., the winged rockets built by Convair to test the Whitcomb area rule for the F-106 supersonic aircraft), the above are called "mathematical models".

The longsword became popular due to is extreme reach and cutting and thrusting abilities. So one can see how a theory is a model of reality that explains certain scientific facts yet may not be a true picture of reality and another more accurate theory can later replace the previous model. Another variant was the specialization of armour-piercing swords of the Estoc type. Mathematical calculations could be made for the prediction of where the planets would be to a great degree of accuracy, so that this model of the planetary system survived over 1500 years until the time of Copernicus. By 1400 this type of sword, at the time called langes Schwert (longsword) or spadone, were common, and a number of 15th and 16th century "fechtbucher" teaching their use survive. This could actually be built into a literal model and illustrated as a model. The main transition was the lengthening of the grip, allowing two-handed use, and a longer blade. Retrograde motion of the planets was explained by smaller circular orbits of individual planets.

From around 1300, in concert with improved armour, innovative sword designs evolved more and more rapidly. In Ptolemy's planetary model, the earth was at the center, the planets and the sun made circular orbits around the earth, and the stars were on a sphere outside of the orbits of the planet and the earth. 900 AD (see Japanese sword), is also derived from the Dao. The Greeks formulated theories that were recorded by the astronomer Ptolemy. The Japanese Katana (刀; かたな), production of which is recorded from ca. An example of how theories are models can be seen from theories on the planetary system. Derived from the Chinese Dao, the Korean Hwandudaedo are known from the early medieval Three Kingdoms. Therefore, the model created in his theory is based on the assumption that light maintains a constant velocity (or more precisely the speed of light is a constant).

Single-edged weapons became popular throughout Asia. He assumed that both of these were correct and formulated his theory based on these assumptions by simply altering the Galilean transformation to accommodate the lack of addition of velocities with regard to the speed of light. However when a knight thrusts his sword, his defense is completely down, and a stab is easier to dodge than a slice. that the "addition of velocities" is valid (Galilean transformation) and that light did not appear to have an "addition of velocities" (Michelson-Morley experiment). A stab is more fatal than a slice and difficult to parry. He took two phenomena that had been observed i.e. The swords were made to be for thrusting. An example of using assumptions to formulate a theory is when Albert Einstein put forth his Special Theory of Relativity.

During the Crusades of the 12th to (13th) century, this cruciform type of arming sword remains essentially stable, with variations mainly concerning the shape of the pommel. Since we must start somewhere, we must have assumptions, but at least let us have as few assumptions as possible." (See Ockham's razor). It is only from the 11th century that Norman swords begin to develop the quillion or crossguard. On the other hand, it seems obvious that assumptions are the weak points in any argument, as they have to be accepted on faith in a philosophy of science that prides itself on its rationalism. The Viking Age sees again a more standardized production, but the basic design remains indebted to the Spatha. (If there were, it would no longer be an assumption.) It is better to consider assumptions as either useful or useless, depending on whether deductions made from them corresponded to reality. Vendel Age Spathas decorated with Germanic artwork (not unlike the Germanic bracteates fashioned after Roman coins). An assumption according to Asimov is "something accepted without proof, and it is incorrect to speak of an assumption as either true or false, since there is no way of proving it to be either.

The Spatha type remained popular throughout the Migration period and well into the Middle Ages. Arguments or theories always begin with some premises - "arbitrary elements" as Hawking calls them (see above), which are here described as "assumptions". The Chinese Dao (刀 pinyin dāo) is single-edged, sometimes translated as sabre or broadsword, and the Jian (劍 pinyin jiàn) double edged. In Understanding Physics, Asimov spoke of theories as "arguments" where one deduces a "scheme" or model. Chinese steel swords make their appearance from the 3rd century BC Qin Dynasty. This is a view shared by Isaac Asimov. The late Roman Empire introduced the longer Spatha (the term for its wielder, spatharius, became a court rank in Constantinople), and from this time, the term "long sword" is applied to swords comparatively long for their respective periods. On the other hand, you can disprove a theory by finding even a single repeatable observation that disagrees with the predictions of the theory.".

The Greek Xiphos and the Roman Gladius are typical examples of the type, measuring some 60 to 70 cm. No matter how many times the results of experiments agree with some theory, you can never be sure that the next time the result will not contradict the theory. By the time of Classical Antiquity and the Parthian and Sassanid Empires in Iran, iron swords were common. According to Stephen Hawking in A Brief History of Time, "a theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements: It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements, and it must make definite predictions about the results of future observations." He goes on to state, "any physical theory is always provisional, in the sense that it is only a hypothesis; you can never prove it. Over time different methods developed all over the world. A theory makes generalizations about observations and consists of an interrelated, coherent set of ideas and models. Several different methods of swordmaking existed in ancient times, including most famously pattern welding. In many instances, this is seen to be the construction of models of reality.

Eventually smiths learned that by adding an amount of carbon (added during smelting in the form of charcoal) in the iron, they could produce an improved alloy (now known as steel). inanimate things, events, or the behaviour of animals). Early Iron swords were not comparable to later steel blades, being brittle and soft, they were even inferior to good bronze weapons, but the easier production, and the better availability of the raw material for the first time permitted the equipment of entire armies with metal weapons. Humans construct theories in order to explain, predict and master phenomena (e.g. Iron has the advantage of mass-production due to the wider availability of the raw material. Yet a California Academy of Sciences exhibit on fossils included this line: "Scientists have a number of theories about why ammonites develop spines on their shells" (emphasis added; from Morrison, 2005). The Hittites, the Mycenean Greeks, and the Proto-Celtic Hallstatt culture figured among the early users of iron swords. Even scientists tend to use the now common definition in everyday speech and writing, being more careful in published material.

Iron swords became increasingly common from the 13th century BC. 39):. However Areliux, a celtian chief, made the "simitar" a sword that could kill with one hit. In everyday English, a theory is (Morrison, 2005, p. All in all, these primitive weapons functioned more like sharpened bludgeons. This change can be seen in modern dictionaries which now list theory as a "guess or hunch" in preference to the former scientific definition that used to be the dominant one. They were without later incorporated features, such as hilts and pommels. Most troublesome for the scientific community is the fact that, in common speech, theory has almost the opposite meaning from its use in the sciences.

Historians debate the exact size of this first sword, but it is generally accepted that the weapons were bronze bars, sharpened along a single edge, between one and two feet in length. A hypothesis, however, is still vastly more reliable than a conjecture, which is at best an untested guess consistent with selected data and often simply a belief based on non-repeatable experiments, anecdotes, popular opinion, "wisdom of the ancients," commercial motivation, or mysticism. These were later dubbed machaira, or sword. Unfortunately, usage of the term theory is muddled by scientists in such examples as string theory and various theories of everything, which are more correctly characterized at present as a bundle of competing hypotheses or a protoscience. When a regiment of Periphero Chortos arrived and witnessed the tanner's use of this curious blade, they requested duplicates of the "arm-length knife" for their own use. For a given body of theory to be considered part of established scientific knowledge, it is usually necessary for it to characterize a critical experiment, namely an experimental result not predicted by any existing established theory. Hephastus hit upon the idea of making larger "knives" to assist the local tanner in skinning animals of their hides. Conversely, at any time in the study of physics there can also be confirmed experimental results that are not yet explained by theory.

Although numerous origin accounts exist, the first sword is believed to have been forged by the Greek bronzeworker Hephastus (2800 B.C.), who would later be deified as the Grecian god of blacksmiths. It is not uncommon in the history of physics for theory to produce predictions that are later confirmed by experiment; failed predictions, however, also occur, and sometimes work to falsify a theory. Sword production in China is attested from the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty. For example, until recently, black holes were considered theoretical. 1400 BC show characteristic spiral patterns. The term theoretical is used in science to describe a result that is predicted by theory but has not yet been observed. Swords from the Nordic Bronze Age from ca. This theory is usually taken to be synonymous with classical electromagnetism.

Bronze Age swords with typical leaf-shaped blades first appear near the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, and in Mesopotamia. A good example is electromagnetic theory, which encompasses the results that can be derived from Maxwell's equations. The hilt at first simply allowed a firm grip, and prevented the hand from slipping onto the blade when executing a stab. In physics, the term theory is generally used for a mathematical framework derived from a small set of basic principles, capable of producing experimental predictions for a given category of physical systems. The sword developed from the dagger when the construction of longer blades became possible, from the early 2nd millennium BC. In this sense, a theory is a systematic and formalized expression of all previous observations made that is predictive, logical, testable, and has never been falsified. Humans have manufactured and used bladed weapons from the Bronze Age onwards. In various sciences, a theory is a logically self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of a certain natural or social phenomenon, thus either originating from or supported by experimental evidence (see scientific method).

. The "theory of global warming" refers instead to scientific work that attempts to explain how and why this could be happening. The names given to many swords in mythology, literature, and history reflect the high prestige of the weapon (see list of swords). For example, "global warming" refers to the observation that worldwide temperatures seem to be increasing. The basic intent and physics of swordsmanship remain fairly constant, but the actual techniques vary between cultures and periods as a result of the differences in blade design and purpose. Theories are typically ways of explaining why things happen, often, but not always after their occurrence is no longer in scientific dispute. Sword (Old English: sweord; akin to Old High German: swerd, "wounding tool"; Proto-Indo-European: *swer-, "to wound, to hurt") is a term for a long-edged, bladed weapon, consisting in its most fundamental design of a blade, usually with two edges for striking and cutting, a point for thrusting, and a hilt for gripping. A theory is in this context a set of hypotheses that are logically bound together (See also hypothetico-deductive method).

It is also not unusual for swords to represent reason - as in "cutting through" a series of elements in a problem in order to leave only those with proven relevance, for example. All scientific understanding takes the form of hypotheses, or conjectures. regiment) of such a corps - as these are numerous, inevitably many variations and combinations (two crossed swords, or with a laurel wreath, crown, national or founder/patron's emblem etcetera) are used. Scientific theories are never proven to be true, but can be disproven. as symbol of armed force, or of a corps entitled to use force as the strong arm of the law, as in military and police insignia, or of a unit (e.g. In scientific usage, a theory does not mean an unsubstantiated guess or hunch, as it often does in other contexts. as symbol of power, such as a Sword of State and a Sword of Justice (both can be used as regalia);. The term ‘theoria’ (a noun) was already used by the scholars of ancient Greeks.

Swords are also used as emblem or insignia (in or on formal dress such as uniforms, badges, various objects, even coats of arms), especially: