Napoleon I of France

In addition to this miscalculation, his nickname le petit caporal adds to the confusion, as non-francophones mistakenly take petit as meaning "small"; in fact, it is an affectionate term reflecting on his camaraderie with ordinary soldiers. http://www.azargoshnasp.net/~iran/Din/traditionaldateofzoroaster.pdf [4]. This corresponds to 5 feet 6.5 inches in English feet, or 1.686 meters [4], making him slightly taller than an average Frenchman of the 19th century. London. After his death in 1821, the French emperor's height was recorded as 5 feet 2 inches in French feet. 1. Contrary to popular belief (perpetuated by the above-mentioned caricatures), Napoleon was not especially short. “The Traditional Date of Zoroaster Explained”, BSOAS, Vol 40, No.

See the discussion in [3] about the significance of the theorem. Shapur Shahbazi, Ali Reza. The theorem states that if we construct equilateral triangles on the sides of any triangle (all outward or all inward), the centres of those equilateral triangles themselves form an equilateral triangle, as illustrated on the right. The Gathas of Zarathushtra, Heidelburg, 1991. In mathematics Napoleon is traditionally given credit for discovering and proving Napoleon's theorem, although there is no specific evidence that he did so. http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/Eran/Articles/gnoli.html [3] Humbach, Helmut. Langewiesche also credits Napoleon with reorganizing what had been the Holy Roman Empire made up of more than 1,000 entities into a more streamlined network of 40 states providing the basis for the German Confederation and the future unification of Germany under the Second Reich in 1871. "Agathias and the Date of Zoroaster," Eran ud Aneran, Festrschrift Marshak, 2003.

Professor Dieter Langewiesche of the University of Tübingen describes the code as a "revolutionary project" which spurred the development of bourgeois society in Germany by expanding the right to own property and breaking the back of feudalism. Gnoli, Gherardo. The Code Napoléon was adopted throughout much of Europe and remained after Napoleon's defeat. Zoroaster in History, Biennial Yarshater Lecture Series 2, Bibliotheca Persica 2000. Nevertheless, Napoleon is also sometimes referred to as the "Armed Soldier of Democracy.". Gnoli, Gherado. 'Boney was a warrior') and poem, and as the grand enemy threatening the gates. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism, University of Chicago Press, 1984.

He is remembered in song (e.g. Boyce, Mary. However, he also had admirers in Britain (especially among the Whigs). Its opening fanfare (corresponding to the book's prologue) was memorably used to score the opening sequence of Stanley Kubrick's movie 2001: A Space Odyssey. During his lifetime, he was often caricatured as a tyrannical (and diminutive) ogre, and these images have continued to colour the British memory of him. Richard Strauss's Opus 30, inspired by Nietzsche's book, is also called Also sprach Zarathustra. In Britain he is remembered as a despot. It was this act that Nietzsche proposed to invert.

Furthermore, the Napoleonic Wars also exported the Revolution to the rest of Europe, and it is believed that the movements of national unification and the rise of the nation state, notably in Italy and Germany, were rooted in and precipitated—if not caused—by the Napoleonic rule of those areas. Nietzsche asserted that he had chosen to put his ideas into the mouth of Zarathustra because the historical prophet had been the first to proclaim the opposition between "good" and "evil", by rejecting the Daeva (representing natural forces) in favor of a moral order represented by the Ahuras. He ended the lawlessness and disorder spawned by the Revolution; in modern terms, he was a "law and order" ruler. Nietzsche fictionalizes and dramatizes Zarathustra toward his own literary and philosophical aims, presenting him as a returning visionary who repudiates the designation of good and evil and thus marks the observation of the death of God. In France, Napoleon is also seen as having preserved the Revolution by creating and perpetuating its myth. In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche used the name of Zarathustra in his seminal book Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spake Zarathustra). Napoleon is credited with introducing the concept of the modern professional conscript army to Europe, an innovation which other states were forced to follow. With the translation of the Avesta by Abraham Anquetil-Duperron, Western scholarship of Zoroastrianism began.

(See Above) Hundreds of millions have visited his tomb since that date. Enlightenment writers such as Voltaire promoted research into Zoroastrianism in the belief that it was a form of rational Deism, preferable to Christianity. This may have been due to arsenic poisoning. He appears in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute under the variant name "Sarastro", who represents moral order in opposition to the "Queen of the Night". Upon opening the tomb, they found that Napoleon's body was completely preserved, as if he had died yesterday. By this time his name was associated with lost ancient wisdom and was appropriated by Freemasons and other groups who claimed access to such knowledge. This final wish was not executed until 1840, when his remains were taken to France in the frigate Belle-Poule and entombed in Les Invalides, Paris. Zoroaster was known as a sage, magician and miracle-worker in post-Classical Western culture, though almost nothing was known of his ideas until the late eighteenth century.

Napoléon had asked in his will to be buried on the banks of the Seine, but when he died in 1821 he was buried on Saint Helena. Other prominent immortals are Geush Urvan, defender of animals, and Sraōša, Pahlavi Srōš "Obedience".. Napoleon also formally adopted his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais and Joséphine's cousin, Stéphanie de Beauharnais, after assuming the Imperial throne, in order to arrange "dynastic" marriages for them. what builder created light and darkness? Through whom does exist dawn, noon and night?" (Yasna 44, 4-6). Other information points to his having had further illegitimate children:. who feeds and waters the plants? .. He acknowledged at least two illegitimate children, both of whom had descendants:. Zoroaster describes Ahura Mazdā in a series of rhetorical questions, "Who established the course of the sun and stars? ..

Napoleon was twice married:. In the yasnas, Zoroaster refers to these forces as "the Better and the Bad.". A team of physicians from the University of Monterspertoli led by Professor Biondi recently confirmed this. The two opposing forces in this battle are Ahura Mazdā (Ohrmazd) (God) and Ahriman (The Devil). 91 kg (200 lb), confirming the autopsy result reported by Antommarchi. This may also be conceptualized as a battle between Darkness and Light. 76 kg (168 lb) while a year earlier he weighed approx. This is often related to a struggle between good and evil in a Western paradigm.

From a multitude of forensic reports they derive that Napoleon at his death weighed approx. A cosmic struggle between Aša "The Truth" (Pahlavi Ahlāyīh) and Druj "The Lie" (Pahlavi Druz) is presented as the foundation of our existence. In May, 2005 a team of Swiss physicians claimed that the reason for Napoleon's death was stomach cancer (which was also the cause of his father's death). If basic precepts of Zoroastrianism are to be distilled into a single maxim, the maxim is Humata, Hukhta, Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds). A group of Researchers from the San Francisco Medical Examiner's Department speculate that this treatment may have led to Napoleon's death by causing a serious potassium deficiency [2]. The teachings of Zoroaster are presented in seventeen liturgical, texts, or "hymns", the yasna which is divided into groups called Gāthās. The medical regime imposed on Napoleon by his doctors included treatment with antimony potassium tartrate, regular enemas and a 600 milligram dose of mercuric chloride to purge his intestines in the days immediately prior to his death. It is possible that Zoroaster lived sometime in the 13th century BC to the 11th century BC, prior to the settlement of Iranian tribes in the central and west of the Iranian Plateau.

This has led to speculation that Napoleon might have suffered from that disease. Also, the absence of any mention of Achaemenids or even any West Iranian tribes such as Medes and Persians, or even Parthians, in the Gathas makes it unlikely that historical Zoroaster ever lived in the court of a 6th century satrap. Prior to the discovery of antibiotics, arsenic was also a widely used, but ineffective, treatment for syphilis. This would stand sharply apart from the view of a Zoroaster living in the court of an Achaemenid satrap such as Wištaspa. The group suggested that the most likely source in this case was a hair tonic. Furthermore, a look at the Gathas and their composition shows us that the society in which they were composed was a nomadic society that lived at a time prior to settlement in large urban areas and depended greatly on pastoralism. The lead investigator, Ivan Ricordel (head of toxicology for the Paris Police), stated that if arsenic had been the cause, Napoléon would have died years earlier. Since the date of the composition of the Rig Veda has been put at somewhere between the 15th century BC to the 12th century BC, we can also assume that the Gathas were composed close to that time, at sometime before 1000 BC.

More recent analysis on behalf of the magazine Science et Vie showed that similar concentrations of arsenic can be found in Napoleon's hair in samples taken from 1805, 1814 and 1821. These similarities suggest that Old Avestan and Vedic were very close in time, probably putting Old Avestan at about one century after Vedic. There, it could have reacted with calomel-and-mercury-based compounds—common medicines at the time—and thus been the immediate cause of his death. The closeness in composition of Old Avestan and Vedic is so much that some parts of the Gathas can be transliterated to Vedic only by following the rules of sound change (such as the development of Indo-Iranian “s” to Avestan “h”). The arsenic severely weakened Napoléon and remained in his system. On the other hand, Old Avestan is very close to the language of the Rig Veda (known as Vedic Sanskrit). This analysis on hair from Napoléon suggests that large but non-lethal doses were absorbed at random intervals. The language of the Gathas, as well as the text known as “Yasna Haptanghaiti” (the Seven Chapter Sermon), is called “Old Avestan” and is significantly different and more archaic than the language of the other parts of the Avesta, “Young Avestan”.

Cutting up hairs into short segments and analysing each segment individually provides a histogram of arsenic concentration in the body. As we know, Zoroaster himself composed the eighteen poems that make up the oldest parts of the Avesta, known as “the Gathas”. In 2001, Pascal Kintz, of the Strasbourg Forensic Institute in France, added credence to this claim with a study of arsenic levels found in a lock of Napoleon's hair preserved after his death: they were seven to thirty-eight times higher than normal. However, from an early time, scholars such as Bartholomea and Christensen noticed the problems with the “Traditional Date”, namely the linguistic difficulties that it presents. Arsenic was also used in some wallpaper, as a green pigment, and even in some patent medicines. This date, which was suggested in the Sassanian commentaries on the Avesta (Bundahišn), gives the date of Zoroaster's life as “258 years before Alexander the Great”. Arsenic was at the time sometimes used as a poison as it was undetectable when administered over a long period of time. Henning and continued by Gnoli among others, is what is known as “the Traditional Date of Zoroaster”.

He describes Napoléon in the months leading up to his death, and led many, most notably Sten Forshufvud and Ben Weider, to conclude that he had been killed by arsenic poisoning. B. In 1955, the diaries of Louis Marchand, Napoléon's valet, appeared in print. A point of view held by many 19th century scholars, among them Taghizadeh and W. Francesco Antommarchi, Napoleon's personal physician, gave stomach cancer as a reason for Napoleon's death in his death certificate. Here we shall look at the most prominent of these arguments. The cause of Napoleon's death has been disputed on numerous occasions, and the controversy remains to this day. Accordingly, any date from the 6th century BC to 6000 BC has been suggested, although some with more merit than others.

[1]. Different sources ranging from linguistic evidence to textual sources and traditional dates have been used by various scholars to determine the date of Zoroaster. Though not apparently enamoured of the language, he was a serious student under the tutelage of Emmanuel, comte de Las Cases, even pondering how much money he might have saved had he not required translation of English documents. One of the most important, and dividing, of all issues regarding the Iranian history is “the date of Zoroaster”, that is the date when he lived and composed his Gathas. He felt it important that he understand the mother tongue of his enemies, and he was particularly interested in what the British press wrote about him. Zoroastrianism then seems to have acquired a solid footing in eastern Iran, where it continues to survive in dwindling numbers. A footnote to his legacy: it would appear that Napoleon made an effort to study the English language while living in exile during his last years. Zoroaster may have emanated from the old school of Median Magi and appeared first among the Medes as the prophet of a new faith, but met with sacerdotal opposition and turned eastward.

When he died, on 5 May 1821, his last words were: "France, the Army, head of the Army, Joséphine.". Eduard Meyer maintains that the Zoroastrian religion must have been predominant among the Medes, therefore, estimates the date of Zoroaster at 1000 BC, in agreement with Duncker (Geschichte des Altertums, 44, 78). In the last half of April 1821, he wrote out his own will and several codicils (a total of 40-odd pages). Assyrian inscriptions relegate him to a more ancient period. Whilst there, with a small cadre of followers, he dictated his memoirs and criticized his captors. According to the Arda Wiraf, Zoroaster taught an estimated 300 years before the invasion of Alexander the Great. Napoleon was imprisoned and then exiled by the British to the island of Saint Helena (2,800 km off the Bight of Guinea) from 15 October 1815. The matriarchal name is the only link to the Achaemenidian lineage.

Off the port of Rochefort, Napoléon made his formal surrender while on board HMS Bellerophon on 15 July 1815. Hutaōsa is the same name as Atossa, who apparently was queen consort to Cambyses II, Smerdis and Darius I. Napoléon's final defeat came at the hands of the Duke of Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at the Battle of Waterloo in present-day Belgium on 18 June 1815. Antiquated sources suggest Vištaspa was Hystaspes, father of Darius I. He arrived on 20 March, quickly raising a regular army of 140,000 and a volunteer force of around 200,000 and governed for a Hundred Days. Placing the date of King Vištaspa is difficult. Following a brief silence, the soldiers erupted into shouts of "Vive L'Empereur!" The soldiers sent to stop the former emperor instead joined the ranks behind him and marched with Napoléon to Paris. His death is not mentioned in the Avesta; in the Šahnāma, he is said to have been murdered at the altar by the Turanians in the storming of Balkh.

If any man would shoot his emperor, he may do so now". His sons and daughters are repeatedly mentioned. When he was within earshot of the men, he threw open his coat and shouted "Soldiers of the Fifth, you recognize me. His first disciple, Maidhyoimaōngha, was his cousin; his father was, according to the later Avesta, Pourušaspa, his mother Dughdova, his great-grandfather Haēcataspa, and the ancestor of the whole family Spitama, for which reason Zoroaster usually bears this surname. Napoléon approached the regiment alone, dismounted his horse, and confidently walked up to the line of soldiers. Apart from this connection, the new prophet relies especially upon his own kindred (hvaētuš). When he returned to the mainland, King Louis XVIII sent the Fifth Regiment, led by Marshal Michel Ney who had formerly served under Napoléon in Russia, to meet him at Grenoble. The actual role of intermediary was played by the pious queen Hutaōsa.

Napoléon escaped from Elba on 26 February 1815 and returned to the mainland on 1 March 1815. Zoroaster was closely related to both: his wife, Hvōvi, was the daughter of Frashaōštra, and the husband of his daughter, Pourucista, was Jamaspa. The French government refused to pay the allowance guaranteed to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and he heard rumours that he was about to be banished to a remote island in the Atlantic. The court of Vištaspa included two brothers, Frašaōštra and Jamaspa; both were, according to the later legend, viziers of Vištaspa. On Elba, Napoléon became concerned about his wife and, more especially, his son, in the hands of the Austrians. In the Gāthās he appears as a historical personage. In France, the royalists had taken over and restored King Louis XVIII to power. Eventually he met Vištaspa, king of Bactria.

He told Caulaincourt "I shall live, since death is no more willing to take me on my bed than on the battlefield.". Yasnas 53 & 9 suggest that he ventured to Rai and was unwelcome. The very next day, however, the Emperor was back to his normal self. He then appears to have left his native district. When Napoleon saw his doctor, he asked the doctor to end his suffering, which seems to confirm Caulaincourt's suspicions. According to Yasnas 5 & 105, he prayed for the conversion of King Vištaspa. There is no way of knowing, however, whether it was really poison, a sedative whose effects were being resisted by Napoleon's body, or simply an anxiety attack. The Iranian Muslim writer Shahrastani endeavours to solve the conflict by arguing that his father was a man of Atropatene, while the mother was from Rai.

He believed it to be, not illogically, attempted suicide. According to Yasna 59, 18, the zaraθuštrotema, or supreme head of the Zoroastrian priesthood, had his residence in Ragha at a later (Sassanian) time. General Caulaincourt, Napoleon's former foreign minister, witnessed Napoleon writhing, retching, and suffering from spasms of hysteria followed by moments of calm. This same text identifies Ērān Wēj with the district of Arran on the river Aras (Araxes) close by the northwestern frontier of the Medes. While exiled in Elba, some claim Napoleon attempted to poison himself. The Būndahišn or Creation (20, 32 and 24, 15) says the Dhraja River in Ērān Wēj was his birthplace and the home of his father. They let him keep the title of "Emperor" but restricted his empire to that tiny island. Yasnas 9 & 17 cite Airyanem Vaējah, "Homeland of the Aryans" (Pahlavi Ērān Wēj), on the Ditya River, as the home of Zoroaster, and the scene of his first appearance.

In the Treaty of Fontainebleau the victors exiled the Corsican to Elba, a small island in the Mediterranean 20 km off the coast of Italy. Textual evidence regarding the birthplace of Zoroaster is conflicting. The Allies, however, demanded unconditional surrender and Napoléon abdicated again, unconditionally, on 11 April. They are the last surviving account of his doctrinal discourses presented at the court of King Vištaspa. His marshals asked Napoléon to abdicate, and he did so on 6 April in favour of his son. The Vendidad also gives accounts of the dialogues between Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster. Paris was occupied on March 31, 1814. The Gāthās within the Avesta make claim to be the ipsissima verba of the prophet.

The French armies could only delay, not prevent, inevitable defeat. The historical Zoroaster, however, eludes categorization as a legendary character. Although some historians consider the defensive campaigns of late 1813 and early 1814 to be among Napoleon's most brilliant, the French were now surrounded (with British armies pressing from the south in addition to the Coalition forces moving in from Germany) and vastly outnumbered. (Yasht, 17,19). After this Napoléon withdrew in an orderly fashion back into France, but his army was now reduced to less than 100,000 against more than half a million Allied troops. In the later Avesta, he is depicted wrestling with the Daēva or "evil immortals" (Pahlavi Dēwān), and, in remarkable prescience of Jesus in the New Testament, is tempted by Ahriman to renounce his faith. This was by far the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars and cost both sides a combined total of over 120,000 casualties. It is important to note the differences between the Zoroaster of the later Avesta and the Zoroaster of the Gāthās.

Some of the German states switched sides in the midst of the battle, further undermining the French position. He had difficulty spreading his teachings, and was even treated with ill-will in his mother's hometown (an exceptional insult in his culture and time). Eventually the French army was caught by a force twice its size at the Battle of Nations (October 16-19) at Leipzig. However, they seem to contain allusions to personal events, overcoming obstacles in life imposed by competing priests and the ruling class. However, the numbers continued to mount against Napoleon as Sweden and Austria joined the Coalition. The Gāthās are poetic admonitions and prophecies, cast in the form of dialogues with God and the Aməa Spəntas "Immortals" (Pahlavi Amahraspandān). It appeared the Napoleon of old was back and that the Coalition might be forced to conclude a peace treaty if this run continued. These human qualities support a historical Zoroaster, despite a lack of historical detail.

Napoleon assumed command in Germany and soon inflicted a series of defeats on the Allies culminating in the Battle of Dresden on August 26-27, 1813 causing almost 100,000 casualties to the Coalition forces (the French sustaining only around 30,000). He faces outward opposition and unbelief and inward doubt. Heartened by Napoleon's losses in Russia, Prussia soon rejoined the Coalition that now included Russia, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Portugal. Here he is a mortal, empowered by trust in his God and the protection of his allies. This force continued to expand, with Napoleon aiming for a force of 400,000 French troops supported by a quarter of a million German troops. Plutarch, drawing partly on Theopompus, speaks of Zoroastrianism in Isis and Osiris. A small Russian army harassed the French in Poland and eventually 30,000 French troops there withdrew to Germany to rejoin the expanding force there - numbering 130,000 with the reinforcements from Poland. Dio Chrysostom relates Zoroaster's Ahura Mazdā to Zeus.

Napoleon was determined not to lose hold of Germany and there was a lull in fighting over the winter of 1812–13 whilst both the Russians and the French recovered from their massive losses of around half a million soldiers each. Plutarch compares him with Lycurgus and Numa Pompilius (Numa, 4). In total French losses in the campaign were 570,000 against about 400,000 Russian casualties and several hundred thousand civilian deaths. He seems to have enjoyed exploring the wilderness from a young age. The French suffered greatly in the course of a ruinous retreat; the Army had begun as over 650,000 frontline troops, but in the end fewer than 40,000 crossed the Berezina River (November 1812) to escape. According to tradition and Pliny's Natural History, Zoroaster laughed on the day of his birth and lived in the wilderness. Within the month, fearing loss of control in France, Napoleon left Moscow. The Greek writers recount a few points regarding the childhood of Zoroaster and his hermit lifestyle.

Moscow began to burn in accordance with orders of the city's military governor and commander-in-chief, Fyodor Rostopchin. His first converts were his wife and children and a cousin named Maidhyoimangha. The Russians retreated and Napoleon was able to enter Moscow, assuming that Alexander I would negotiate peace. His illumination from Ahura Mazda came at age 30. It appeared both Barclay and Kutuzov had been correct in their assessments of the situation for, outside Moscow on 7 September, the Russian army was defeated after what may have been the bloodiest day of battle in history - the Battle of Borodino (see article for comparisons to the first day of the Battle of the Somme). His mother was Dughdova; his father was Pourushaspa Spitāma, son of Haecadaspa Spitāma. Kutuzov also soon came under criticism for this and finally offered battle. His wife was named Hvōvi, and they had three daughters, Freni, Friti and Pourucista, and three sons, Isat Vastar, Uruvat-Nara and Hvare Ciθra.

Realising the reality of the situation, Kutuzov continued Barclay's strategy. The Greeks refer to him as a Bactrian (coming from present day Afghanistan), a Median or a Persian about 3-5,000 years ago. Criticized over his tentative strategy of continual retreat, Barclay was replaced by Kutuzov. It is fair to say that Zoroaster lived in the northeastern area of ancient Iranian territory. The Russians then repeatedly avoided battle with the Grande Armée, although in a few cases only because Napoleon uncharacteristically hesitated to attack when the opportunity presented itself. The biographies in the seventh book of the Dēnkard (9th century) and the Šahnāma are mythic. A brief attempt at resistance was offered at Smolensk (August 16-17), but the Russians were defeated in a series of battles in the area and Napoleon resumed the advance. The 13th section of the Avesta, the Spena Nask, the description of Zoroaster's life, has perished over the centuries.

The Russians under Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly were unable to successfully defeat Napoleon's huge, well-organized army and retreated instead. What we know of the life of Zoroaster is from the Avesta, the Gāthās, the Greek texts, oral history (which is a significant method of teaching in the tradition), and what can be inferred from archaeological evidence. Napoleon also rejected requests to free the Russian serfs, fearing this might provoke a conservative reaction in his rear. Estimates for the lifetime of Zoroaster vary widely depending on the sources used. For political reasons this was unlikely to happen (principally because it would bring Prussia and Austria into the war against France). This last translation seems to have derived from a desire to give a more fitting meaning to the prophet's name than "owner of feeble camels.". Polish nationalists wanted all of Russian Poland to be incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and a new Kingdom of Poland created. A more romantic, but inaccurate, translation of the name in the past has been "[bringer of the] golden dawn", based on the mistaken assumption that the second part of the name is a variant of the Vedic word Ushas meaning "dawn".

Napoleon, in an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists, termed the war the "Second Polish War" (the first Polish war being the liberation of Poland from Russia, Prussia and Austria). The first part of the name was formerly commonly translated as "yellow" or "golden", from the Avestan zaray, giving the meaning "[having] yellow camels". Victor Hugo would write in his poem, "Russia 1812" (1873):. The name zaraθ-uštra is a Bahuvrihi compound in the Avestan language, of zarəta- "feeble, old" and uštra "camel", translating to "having old camels, the one who owns old camels". On June 23, 1812, Napoleon's invasion of Russia commenced. . Napoleon ignored repeated advice against an invasion of the vast Russian heartland, and prepared his forces for an offensive campaign. Others, however, give earlier estimates, making him a candidate as the founder of the earliest religion based on revealed scripture, while still others place him in the 6th century BC, which would make him contemporary to the rise of the Achaemenids.

However Napoleon anticipated this and after the initial reports of Russian war preparations he began expanding his Grande Armée to a massive force of over 600,000 men (despite already having over 300,000 men deployed in Iberia). Scholarly estimates are usually roughly near 1000 BC. Large numbers of troops were deployed to the Polish borders (reaching over 300,000 out of the total Russian army strength of 410,000). Zoroaster is generally accepted as a historical figure, but efforts to date Zoroaster vary widely. By 1812, advisors to Alexander suggested that a vast revolution was brewing across Germany and that the time was right for an invasion of the French Empire (and the recapture of Poland). In Modern Persian the name takes the form of Zartošt or Zardošt (زرتشت). This enraged Napoleon, who it seems had genuinely liked Alexander since their meeting and thus felt betrayed. Zoroaster was probably born in the northeastern part of Iran, though there is also a tradition that he came from Balkh in modern day Afghanistan.

The first signs that the alliance was deteriorating was the easing of the application of the Continental System in Russia. Zarathushtra (Zaraθuštra), usually known in English as Zoroaster after the Greek version of the name, Ζωροάστρης, was an Iranian prophet and the founder of Zoroastrianism, which was the national religion of the Persian Empire from the time of the Achaemenidae to the close of the Sassanid period. Despite being an avid admirer of Napoleon since first meeting him in 1807, Alexander had been under strong pressure from the Russian aristocracy to break off the alliance with France, as they considered it an insult to Russian pride. Amərətatāt, Pahlavi Amurdād: "Immortality", the guardian of food and plants. Although the Congress of Erfurt had sought to preserve the Russo-French alliance, by 1811 tensions were again increasing between the two nations. Haurvatat: "Perfection". Main article: Napoleon's invasion of Russia.. Spɚnta- Ārmatay-, Pahlavi Spandarmad, "Holy Thought": the female immortal of the earth.

Following this a new peace was signed between Austria and France and in the following year the Austrian Archduchess Marie-Louise married Napoleon, following his divorce of Josephine. Xšaθra- Vairya-, Pahlavi Šahrewar: "Best Rule", the power and kingdom of Ahura Mazdā and guardian of metals. After both sides had licked their wounds for two months the principal French and Austrian armies engaged again near Vienna resulting in a French victory at Battle of Wagram (6 July). Ašəm, afterwards Ašəm Vahištəm, Pahlavi Ardwahišt: "Right": truth and the embodiment of all that is true, good and right, upright law and rule (ideas practically identical for Zoroaster). A bloody draw at Aspern-Essling (May 21-22, 1809) near Vienna was the closest Napoleon ever came to a defeat in a battle with more or less equal numbers on each side. Vohu Manu, Pahlavi Wahman, "Good Mind": the principle of the good. However at this time Austria broke its alliance with France without warning and Napoleon was forced to assume command of forces on the Danube and German fronts. Nyberg in Die Religionen des Alten Iran (1938).

The Spanish, inspired by nationalist and Catholic opposition to the French, rose in revolt. Darmesteter reports 100 BC; before 458 BC is cited by H.S. He installed one of his marshals and brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, as the King of Naples, his brother Joseph Bonaparte, as king of Spain . Other scholars have been arguing even later dates, now widely rejected. After mixed results were encountered by his generals Napoleon himself intervened and defeated the Spanish army, retook Madrid and then defeated a British army sent to support the Spanish, driving it to the coast and ignoble withdrawal from Iberia (in which its commander, Sir John Moore, was killed). The Būndahišn or Creation, an important text within the religion, cites the time of Zoroaster as 258 years before Alexander's conquest of Persia, i.e., 588 BC. When Spain refused Napoleon sent forces into Spain as well. 1000 BC.

Portugal did not comply with this Continental System and in 1807 Napoleon sought Spain's support in an invasion of Portugal. Gherardo Gnoli gives a date near ca. The English economy did suffer to an extent from this - but no more so than the French Empire's economy and neither nation was in a position to challenge the other. Since the Gathas are very cryptic, and open to much interpretation, such a method can also only yield very rough estimates. Napoleon attempted to enforce a Europe-wide commercial boycott of Britain called the "Continental System". The historical approach compares social customs described in the Gāthās to what is known of the time and region through other historical studies. Since he failed at conquering the British militarily, he decided to try to conquer them economically, by banning all merchandise and ships from continental Europe. 1400 BC–1000 BC is cited by Mary Boyce in her A History of Zoroastrianism (1989).

Main articles: Peninsular War, Fifth Coalition.. Linguistic analysis of the Gāthās, the only texts directly connected with Zoroaster, and comparison with other known Indo-Iranian languages, especially Sanskrit, can only give rough estimates, generally dating Zoroaster to around or after 1000 BC. Between 1809 and 1813 Napoleon also served as Regent of the Grand Duchy of Berg for his brother Louis Bonaparte. Indo-Iranian religion is generally accepted to have its roots in the 3rd millennium BC, but Zoroaster himself did already look back on a long religious tradition. In the French part of Poland, he established the Duchy of Warsaw with King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony as ruler. 2000 BC based on excavations in Uzbekistan (Asgarov, 1984). He placed puppet rulers on the thrones of German states, including his brother Jerome as king of the new state of Westphalia. However, a Russian archaeologist links Zoroaster to ca.

After a major victory at Friedland he signed a treaty at Tilsit in East Prussia with the Russian tsar Alexander I, dividing Europe between the two powers. Archaeological evidence is usually inconclusive for questions of religion. Napoleon marched on through Poland but was attacked by the Russians at the bloody Battle of Eylau on 6 February 1807. These are the dates to which Parsis subscribe.[1] [2]. He secured a major victory against Austria and Russia at Austerlitz (2 December), forcing Austria yet again to sue for peace; and, in the following year, humbled Prussia at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (14 October 1806). Ancient Greek estimates are dependent on Persian mythology and give dates as early as the 7th millennium BC. Napoleon then finally abandoned all hope of invading Britain, and turned his attention once again to his Continental rivals. His name is cited by Xanthus, and in the Alcibiades of Plato as well as by Plutarch, Pliny the Elder and Diogenes Laertius.

A plan by the French, along with the Spanish, to defeat the Royal Navy failed dramatically at the Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805), and Britain gained lasting control of the seas. Zoroaster was famous in classical antiquity as the founder of the religion of the Magi. By 1805 the Third Coalition against Napoleon had formed in Europe. Manly Palmer Hall in his book, Twelve World Teachers, arrives at a rough estimate ranging from 10000 BC to 1000 BC. Then at Milan's cathedral on 26 May 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy, with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. Persian mythology, mainly the Šahnāma of Ferdowsi, and oral tradition place Zoroaster quite early. After the Imperial regalia had been blessed by the Pope, Napoleon crowned himself before crowning his wife Joséphine as Empress.

Claims that he seized the crown out of the hands of Pope Pius VII during the ceremony in order to avoid subjecting himself to the authority of the pontiff are apocryphal; in fact, the coronation procedure had been agreed upon in advance. Napoleon crowned himself Emperor on 2 December 1804 (illustration, right) at Notre-Dame Cathedral. Bonaparte then used this incident to justify the re-creation of a hereditary monarchy in France, with himself as Emperor, on the theory that a Bourbon restoration would be impossible once the Bonapartist succession was entrenched in the constitution. After a hurried secret trial, the Duke was executed on 21 March.

In retaliation, Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the Duc d'Enghien, in a violation of the sovereignty of Baden. In January 1804, Bonaparte's police uncovered an assassination plot against him, supposedly sponsored by the Bourbons. The dispute over Malta provided the pretext for Britain to declare war on France in 1803 to support French royalists. Recognizing that the French possessions on the mainland of North America would now be indefensible, and facing imminent war with Britain, he sold them to the United States—the Louisiana Purchase—for less than three cents per acre ($7.40/km²).

In 1803, Bonaparte faced a major setback when an army he sent to reconquer Santo Domingo and establish a base was destroyed by a combination of yellow fever and fierce resistance led by Toussaint L'Ouverture. Britain failed to evacuate Malta and Egypt as promised, and protested against France's annexation of Piedmont, and Napoleon's Act of Mediation in Switzerland (although neither of these areas was covered by the Treaty of Amiens). In Britain, the brother of Louis XVI was welcomed as a state guest although officially Britain recognized France as a republic. The "legitimate" monarchies of Europe were reluctant to recognize a republic, fearing that the ideas of the revolution might be exported to them.

The peace between France and Britain was uneasy at best. As a result the Treaty of Lunéville was signed in February 1801, under which the French gains of the Treaty of Campo Formio were reaffirmed and increased; the British also committed themselves to sign a peace treaty and finally signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, under which Malta was to be handed over to France. Moreau led France to victory at Hohenlinden. As negotiations became more and more fractious, Bonaparte gave orders to his general Moreau to strike Austria once more.

Napoleon's brother Joseph, who was leading the peace negotiations in Lunéville, reported that due to British backing for Austria, Austria would not recognize France's newly gained territory. Although the campaign began badly, the Austrians were routed in June at Marengo, leading to an armistice. He and his troops crossed the Alps in spring (although he actually rode a mule, not the white charger on which David famously depicted him). In 1800, Bonaparte returned to Italy, which the Austrians had reconquered during his absence in Egypt.

Bonaparte sought to restore law and order after the excesses of the Revolution, and reform the administration of the State. Although Bonaparte was an authoritarian ruler, the same was true of most continental European countries at the time. Although contemporary standards may consider these procedures as favoring the prosecution, when enacted they sought to preserve personal freedoms and to remedy the prosecutorial abuses commonplace in European courts. In 1808, a Code of Criminal Instruction was published, which enacted precise rules of judicial procedure.

Other codes were commissioned by Bonaparte to codify criminal and commerce law. The Code was prepared by committees of legal experts under the supervision of Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès, who held the office Second Consul from 1799 to 1804; Bonaparte, however, participated actively in the sessions of the Council of State that revised the drafts. His set of civil laws, the Napoleonic Code or Civil Code, has importance to this day in many countries. He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church, seeking to reconcile the mostly Catholic population with his regime.

Bonaparte instituted several lasting reforms including centralized administration of the départements, higher education, a tax system, a central bank, law codes, and road and sewer systems. This made him the most powerful person in France, a power that was increased by the Constitution of the Year X, which made him First Consul for life. Although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, he was outmanoeuvred by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. On 9 November (18 Brumaire), and the following day, troops led by Bonaparte seized control and dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a rump to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, and Ducos as provisional Consuls to administer the government.

The plot included Bonaparte's brother Lucien, then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos, another Director, and Talleyrand. Bonaparte was approached by one of the Directors, Sieyès, seeking his support for a coup to overthrow the constitution. The Republic was bankrupt, however, and the corrupt and inefficient Directory was more unpopular with the French public than ever. By the time he returned to Paris in October, the military situation had improved thanks to several French victories.

Although he was later accused by political opponents of abandoning his troops, his departure actually had been authorized by the Directory, which had suffered a series of military defeats to the forces of the Second Coalition, and feared an invasion. On 23 August, he abruptly set sail for France, taking advantage of the temporary departure of British ships blockading French coastal ports. While in Egypt, Bonaparte had kept a close eye on European affairs, relying largely on newspapers and dispatches that arrived only irregularly. Eventually Napoleon was forced to withdraw from Egypt in 1801, under constant British and Ottoman attacks.

On 25 July, he defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir. He was unable to reduce the fortress of Acre, and was forced to retreat to Egypt in May. In early 1799 he led the army into the Ottoman province of Syria, now modern Israel, and defeated numerically superior Ottoman forces in several battles, but his army was weakened by disease and poor supplies. His goal of strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean Sea was thus frustrated, but his army nonetheless succeeded in consolidating power in Egypt, although it faced repeated nationalist uprisings.

Although Bonaparte had massive success against the native Mamluk army in the Battle of the Pyramids (his 25,000 man strong invading force defeated a 100,000 man army), his fleet was largely destroyed by Nelson at The Battle of the Nile, so that Bonaparte became land-bound. Bonaparte's expedition seized Malta from the Knights of Saint John on June 9 and then landed successfully at Alexandria on July 1, eluding (temporarily) pursuit by the Royal Navy. In a largely unsuccessful effort to gain the support of the Egyptian populace, Bonaparte also issued proclamations casting himself as a liberator of the people from Ottoman oppression, and praising the precepts of Islam. This deployment of intellectual resources is considered by some an indication of Bonaparte's devotion to the principles of the Enlightenment, and by others as a masterstroke of propaganda obfuscating the true imperialist motives of the invasion.

An unusual aspect of the Egyptian expedition was the inclusion of a large group of scientists assigned to the invading French force: among the other discoveries that resulted, the Rosetta Stone was found. The Directory, although troubled by the scope and cost of the enterprise, readily agreed to the plan in order to remove the popular general from the centre of power. In March 1798, Bonaparte proposed an expedition to colonize Egypt, then a province of the Ottoman Empire, seeking to protect French trade interests and undermine Britain's access to India. Bonaparte himself proceeded to the peace negotiations with Austria, then returned to Paris in December as the conquering hero and the dominant force in government, far more popular than any of the Directors.

This left Barras and his Republican allies in firm control again, but dependent on Bonaparte's "sword" to stay there. Bonaparte soon sent General Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d'etat and purge the royalists on 4 September (18 Fructidor). The royalists, in turn, began attacking Bonaparte for looting Italy and overstepping his authority in dealings with the Austrians (not without justification on both counts). Elections in mid-1797 gave the royalist party increased power, alarming Barras and his allies on the Directory.

In May 1797 he founded a third newspaper, published in Paris, entitled Le Journal de Bonaparte et des hommes vertueux. He published two newspapers, ostensibly for the troops in his army, but widely circulated within France as well. While campaigning in Italy, Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He often won battles by concentrating his forces on an unsuspecting enemy by using spies to gather information about opposing forces and by concealing his own troop deployments.

He was also a master of both intelligence and deception. Contemporary paintings of his headquarters during the Italian campaign depict his use of the world's first telecommunications system, the Chappe semaphore line, first implemented in 1792. He was known as an aggressive commander who enjoyed the loyalty of highly motivated soldiers. As he described it: "I have fought sixty battles and I have learned nothing which I did not know at the beginning." An artillery officer by training, he devised new tactics and employed his artillery as a mobile force to support infantry attacks, benefiting from France's technological advantage in this branch of armaments.

However, he owed much of his great military success not merely to innovation, but as well to his encyclopedic knowledge and superior application of conventional military thought. As a battle field planner, he was known for his creative use of mobile artillery tactics. He was able to absorb the substantial body of military knowledge of his time and to apply it to the real-world circumstances of his era. Bonaparte was a brilliant military strategist.

Later in 1797, Bonaparte organized many of the French dominated territories in Italy into the Cisalpine Republic. Bonaparte then marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending over 1,000 years of independence. The resulting Treaty of Campo Formio gave France control of most of northern Italy, along with the Low Countries and Rhineland, but a secret clause promised Venice to Austria. In early 1797, he led his army into Austria and forced that power to sue for peace.

The pope later died of illness while in captivity. It was not until the next year that General Berthier captured Rome and took Pope Pius VI prisoner on February 20. Bonaparte ignored the Directory's order to march on Rome and dethrone the Pope. Because Pope Pius VI had protested the execution of Louis XVI, France retaliated by annexing two small papal territories.

He drove the Austrian forces out of Lombardy and defeated the army of the Papal States. At the Lodi, he gained the nickname of "The Little Corporal" (le petit caporal), a term reflecting his camaraderie with the ordinary soldiers. Just days after his marriage, Bonaparte took command of the French "Army of Italy", leading it on a successful invasion of Italy. Within weeks he was romantically attached to Barras' former mistress, Josephine de Beauharnais, whom he married in 1796.

He later boasted that he had cleared the streets with a "whiff of grapeshot." This triumph earned him sudden fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new Directory, particularly that of its leading member, Barras. He utilized the artillery the following day to repel the attackers. He seized artillery pieces with the aid of a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat, who would later become his brother-in-law. Bonaparte was given command of the improvised forces defending the Convention in the Tuileries Palace.

In 1795, Bonaparte was serving in Paris when royalists and counter-revolutionaries organized an armed protest against the National Convention on 3 October. As a result, he was briefly imprisoned following the fall of the elder Robespierre in 1794, but was released within two weeks. His actions brought him to the attention of the Committee of Public Safety, and he became a close associate of Augustin Robespierre, younger brother of the Revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre. A successful assault of the position, during which Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh, led to the recapture of the city and a promotion to brigadier-general.

He formulated a successful plan: he placed guns at Point l'Eguillete in order to force the British fleet from the harbour or suffer certain destruction had they remained. Through the help of fellow Corsican Saliceti, he was appointed as artillery commander in the French forces besieging Toulon, which had risen in revolt against the Terror and was occupied by British troops. After coming into conflict with the increasingly conservative nationalist leader, Pasquale Paoli, Bonaparte and his family were forced to flee to France in June 1793. Bonaparte supported the Jacobin faction, and gained the position of lieutenant-colonel of a regiment of volunteers.

He spent most of the next several years on Corsica, where a complex three-way struggle was played out among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. Napoleon served on garrison duty in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 (although he took nearly two years of leave in Corsica and Paris during this period). Upon graduation in September, 1785, he was commissioned as a 2nd lieutenant of artillery, and took up his new duties in January 1786, at the age of 16. Although he had initially sought a naval assignment, he studied artillery at the École Militaire.

Upon graduation from Brienne in 1784, Bonaparte was admitted to the elite École Royale Militaire in Paris, where he completed the two year course of study in only one year. He earned high marks in mathematics and geography, and passable grades in other subjects. He spoke French with a marked Italian accent throughout his life, and was a poor speller. He had to learn to speak French before entering the school.

At age 10, Napoleon was admitted to a French military school at Brienne-le-Château, a small town near Troyes, on 15 May 1779. Napoleon's noble, moderately well-off background and family connections afforded him opportunities to study which would not have been available to a typical Corsican of the time. Her firm discipline helped restrain the rambunctious boy, nicknamed Rabullione (the "meddler" or "disrupter"). Ahead of her time, she had her 8 children bathe every other day—at a time when even those in the upper classes took a bath perhaps once a month.

The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, Maria Letizia Ramolino. His father, Carlo Buonaparte, an attorney, was named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI of France in 1778, where he remained for a number of years. His family was of minor Corsican nobility. Born Napoleone Buonaparte (in Corsican, Nabolione or Nabulione) in the city of Ajaccio on Corsica, Napoléone later adopted the more French-sounding Napoléon Bonaparte, the first known reference which appears in an official report dated 28 March 1796.

. Although their reigns did not survive his downfall, a nephew, Napoleon III, ruled France later in the nineteenth century. Napoleon appointed several members of the Bonaparte family as monarchs. Others consider him a tyrannical dictator whose wars and rule led to the death of millions.

Aside from his military achievements, Napoleon is also remembered for the establishment of the Napoleonic Code, and is considered by some to have been one of the "enlightened monarchs". He staged a comeback known as the Hundred Days (les Cent Jours), but was defeated decisively at the Battle of Waterloo in Belgium on June 18, 1815, followed shortly afterwards by his surrender to the British and his exile to the island of Saint Helena, where he died. Over the course of little more than a decade, he acquired control of most or all of the western and central mainland of Europe by conquest or alliance until his defeat at the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig in October 1813, which led to his abdication several months later. Napoleon is considered to have been a military genius, and is known for commanding many successful campaigns, together with some spectacular failures.

Napoléon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a general of the French Revolution, and the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from 11 November 1799 to 18 May 1804, then as Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français) and King of Italy under the name Napoleon I from 18 May 1804 to 6 April 1814, and again briefly from 20 March to 22 June 1815. Barthélemy St Hilaire (August 19, 1805 - November 24, 1895) whose mother remains unknown. Hélène Napoleone Bonaparte, daughter by Countess Montholon. Karl Eugin von Mühlfeld, son by Victoria Kraus.

Émilie Louise Marie Françoise Joséphine Pellapra, daughter by Françoise-Marie LeRoy. Alexandre Joseph Colonna, Count Walewski, (May 4, 1810 - October 27, 1868), son of Marie, Countess Walewski (1789 - 1817). Charles, Count Léon, (1806 - 1881), son by Louise Catherine Eléonore Denuelle de la Plaigne (1787 - 1868). In his later life he was known as the Duke of Reichstadt.

He is known as Napoléon II of France although he never ruled. Napoléon Francis Joseph Charles Bonaparte (March 20, 1811- July 22, 1832), King of Rome. They had one child.