Fender

The Fender logo, often called the "spaghetti" logo. The famous Stratocaster headstock.

The Fender Musical Instruments Corporation, initially named the Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company, was started by Leo Fender in the 1940s, and is one of the most widely recognised manufacturers of electric guitars, electric basses and amplifiers.

Fender is particularly important because of its role in bringing solidbody electric guitars to the masses. Fender offered the first mass-produced solid-body Spanish-style electric guitar, the Telecaster (originally named the 'Broadcaster', 'Esquire' is a single pickup version); the first mass-produced electric bass, the Precision Bass (or P-Bass); and the enormously popular Stratocaster guitar (or 'Strat' for short). While other companies and luthiers had produced electric guitars since the late 1920s, nearly all were either hollow-body guitars with pickups attached, or more specialized instruments such as Rickenbacker's solid-body Hawaiian lap steel guitars.

Other popular and/or notable Fender instruments include the Mustang, Jazzmaster, Jaguar, Starcaster, Duosonic, and Bronco guitars; basses such as the Jazz Bass, the 'Telecaster Bass' reissue of the original 1950s Precision Bass; a line of lap steels, and the Fender Rhodes electric piano.

Its headquarters are in Scottsdale, Arizona, with manufacturing facilities in Corona, California, and OCONUS manufacturing facilities in Ensenada (Mexico), Korea and Japan.

Early history

The company began as "Fender's Radio Service" in late 1938 in Fullerton, California, USA. As a qualified electronics technician, Leo was asked to repair not only radios, but phonograph players, home audio amplifiers, public address systems and musical instrument amplifiers. (Technical note: at the time, most of the above were simply variations on a few simple vacuum-tube circuits). The business also sidelined in carrying records for sale and the rental of self-designed-and-built PA systems. He became intrigued by design flaws in current musical instrument amplifiers, and he began custom-building a few amplifiers based on his own designs or modifications to designs. By the early 1940s, he had partnered with another local electronics enthusiast named Clayton Orr (Doc) Kauffman, and they formed a company named "K & F Manufacturing Corp." to design, manufacture, and sell electric instruments and amplifiers. Production began in 1945 with Hawaiian lap steel guitars (incorporating a patented pickup) and amplifiers, which were sold as sets. By the end of the year, Fender had become convinced that manufacturing was more profitable than repair, and he decided to concentrate on that business. Kauffman remained unconvinced, however, and they had amicably parted ways by early 1946. At that point Leo renamed the company the "Fender Electric Instrument Company." The service shop remained open until 1951, although Leo Fender did not personally supervise it after 1947.

See the article on the Fender Telecaster for more details of the Fender company's early history.

Sale to CBS

In early 1965, Leo Fender sold his company to the Columbia Broadcasting System, or CBS.

Fender's sale to CBS had far-reaching implications. At first, the sale was a taken as a positive development, considering CBS' ability to bring in money and personnel. However, the sale is often now looked back upon unfavorably, due to the perception that CBS favored numbers and profit over quality; the culmination of this occurred in 1983, when the Stratocaster received a short-lived redesign without a second tone control and a bare-bones output jack. In addition, previous models such as the Swinger (a.k.a. Musiclander) and Custom (a.k.a. Maverick) had been little more than attempts to squeeze profits out of factory stock. The so-called "Pre-CBS cult" refers to the popularity of Fenders made before the sale.

After selling the Fender company, Leo Fender designed products for Music Man and later founded the G&L company which manufactures top quality electric guitars and basses designed by Leo Fender.

Current

In 1985, initiated by a company employee named William Schultz, the Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company was bought from CBS by its own employees, and renamed Fender Musical Instruments Corporation.

Behind the Fender name, the Fender Musical Instruments Corporation has continued to grow, and to add a wider range of products to its catalogs, while still keeping with traditional designs from the company's early years.

Fender manufactures its highest quality models in the United States and Japan, but also has extensive manufacturing facilities in China and Mexico for downmarket models, such that a new guitar with the name, 'Fender Stratocaster,' can be purchased for roughly the same dollar amount today as in 1954. The older and American-built Strats are by far the most favoured, but Japanese Fenders are now highly regarded as well: Fenders built in Ensenada, Mexico took over for the early Japanese guitars as the downmarket counterparts to the American models, while more recent Japanese Fenders are now mainly for the Japanese market, as counterparts to the American-made Fenders, and with only a small number marked for export.

The brand name, 'Squier', (previously a string manufacturer bought up by Fender) has been used in the early 1980s to produce (in Japan) cheaper, original Fender guitars to combat the frighteningly accurate copies from Japanese manufacturer Tokai and, later, with the production moving to Korea, for student-grade versions of Fender designs, of varying manufacture and often wildly fluctuating quality. The name adorns many inexpensive guitars based on Fender designs but with much cheaper construction (for instance, poplar, basswood and agathis replace ash and alder for the bodies - in those cases where the body is made of solid wood, because quite a good deal of Squiers feature plywood bodies - and the maple necks are of a lower grade). These inexpensive models are now manufactured in China and Indonesia.

Early Japanese Fender and Squier Stratocasters are well-regarded, and are now traded on the used-guitar market as JV, or 'Japanese Vintage'.

The core of its instrument line, the Tele, Strat, P-Bass, and J-Bass, remains largely unchanged from the 1950s and 1960s originals. On nearly every stage in the country, small or large, featuring blues, country and western or rock and roll, it is common to see a Fender guitar or bass in the hands of one or more of the musicians, amplified through a Fender amplifier. Fender guitars have been the instrument of choice for hundreds of noted artists including Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Ritchie Blackmore, and Keith Richards.

In recent years, Fender Musical Instruments Corporation has branched out into making and selling acoustic guitars, and has purchased a number of other instrument firms, including the Guild Guitar Company, the Sunn Amplifier Company, and other brands such as SWR bass amplifiers.

In early 2003, Fender Musical Instruments Corporation made a deal with Gretsch, and began manufacturing and distributing new Gretsch guitars.

Fender Guitars

Electric Guitars

  • Broadcaster
  • Bronco
  • Coronado
  • Custom
  • Cyclone
  • Duo-Sonic
  • Electric XII
  • Jag-Stang
  • Jaguar
  • Jazzmaster
  • Katana
  • Fender Lead Series
  • LTD
  • Musicmaster
  • Mustang
  • Showmaster
  • Starcaster
  • Stratocaster
    • David Gilmour: owner of Strat #0001, formerly owned by Homer Haynes (a very early Strat in a custom color, but it was NOT the first Stratocaster ever made)
    • Buddy Guy Polka Dot Stratocaster
    • Eric Clapton Stratocaster
    • Eric Johnson Stratocaster
    • Hello Kitty Stratocaster[1]
    • Jeff Beck Stratocaster
    • Jimmie Vaughan Tex-Mex Stratocaster
    • John Mayer Stratocaster
    • Mark Knopfler Stratocaster
    • Robert Cray Standard Stratocaster
    • Stevie Ray Vaughan Signature Stratocaster
    • Yngwie Malmsteen Stratocaster
  • Fat Strat
  • Super Strat
  • Telecaster
    • Telecaster Deluxe
    • J5 Telecaster
  • Toronado
  • Swinger

Electric Basses

  • Badtz-Maru Bronco Bass[2]
  • Jazz
  • Jaguar
  • Mustang
  • Precision
  • Performer
  • Telecaster
  • VI
  • Zone

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In early 2003, Fender Musical Instruments Corporation made a deal with Gretsch, and began manufacturing and distributing new Gretsch guitars. Films provide them in an accessible and powerful way. In recent years, Fender Musical Instruments Corporation has branched out into making and selling acoustic guitars, and has purchased a number of other instrument firms, including the Guild Guitar Company, the Sunn Amplifier Company, and other brands such as SWR bass amplifiers. Civilization develops and changes, at least in surface features, and so calls for a constant renewal of artistic means to channel these desires. Fender guitars have been the instrument of choice for hundreds of noted artists including Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Ritchie Blackmore, and Keith Richards. The reason motion pictures endure is because people still want escapism, adventure, inspiration, humor and to be moved emotionally. On nearly every stage in the country, small or large, featuring blues, country and western or rock and roll, it is common to see a Fender guitar or bass in the hands of one or more of the musicians, amplified through a Fender amplifier. all involve plots with common threads that existed in books, plays and other venues.

The core of its instrument line, the Tele, Strat, P-Bass, and J-Bass, remains largely unchanged from the 1950s and 1960s originals. Romantic motion pictures about a girl loving a guy but not being able to be together for some reason, movies about a hero who fights against all odds a more powerful fiendish enemy, comedies about everyday life, etc. Early Japanese Fender and Squier Stratocasters are well-regarded, and are now traded on the used-guitar market as JV, or 'Japanese Vintage'. Apart from societal norms and cultural changes, there are still close resemblances between theatrical plays throughout the ages and films of today. These inexpensive models are now manufactured in China and Indonesia. Many believe that film will be a long enduring art form because motion pictures appeal to diverse human emotions. The name adorns many inexpensive guitars based on Fender designs but with much cheaper construction (for instance, poplar, basswood and agathis replace ash and alder for the bodies - in those cases where the body is made of solid wood, because quite a good deal of Squiers feature plywood bodies - and the maple necks are of a lower grade). Films have been around for more than a century, however this is not long when you consider it in relation to other arts like painting and sculpture.

The brand name, 'Squier', (previously a string manufacturer bought up by Fender) has been used in the early 1980s to produce (in Japan) cheaper, original Fender guitars to combat the frighteningly accurate copies from Japanese manufacturer Tokai and, later, with the production moving to Korea, for student-grade versions of Fender designs, of varying manufacture and often wildly fluctuating quality. Yet the migration is gradual, and as of 2005 most major motion pictures are still recorded on film. The older and American-built Strats are by far the most favoured, but Japanese Fenders are now highly regarded as well: Fenders built in Ensenada, Mexico took over for the early Japanese guitars as the downmarket counterparts to the American models, while more recent Japanese Fenders are now mainly for the Japanese market, as counterparts to the American-made Fenders, and with only a small number marked for export. These approaches are extremely beneficial to moviemakers, especially because footage can be evaluated and edited without waiting for the film stock to be processed. Fender manufactures its highest quality models in the United States and Japan, but also has extensive manufacturing facilities in China and Mexico for downmarket models, such that a new guitar with the name, 'Fender Stratocaster,' can be purchased for roughly the same dollar amount today as in 1954. Modern digital video cameras and digital projectors are gaining ground as well. Behind the Fender name, the Fender Musical Instruments Corporation has continued to grow, and to add a wider range of products to its catalogs, while still keeping with traditional designs from the company's early years. Some films in recent decades have been recorded using analog video technology similar to that used in television production.

In 1985, initiated by a company employee named William Schultz, the Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company was bought from CBS by its own employees, and renamed Fender Musical Instruments Corporation. Film preservation of decaying film stock is a matter of concern to both film historians and archivists, and to companies interested in preserving their existing products in order to make them available to future generations (and thereby increase revenue). After selling the Fender company, Leo Fender designed products for Music Man and later founded the G&L company which manufactures top quality electric guitars and basses designed by Leo Fender. Digital methods have also been used to restore and preserve films. The so-called "Pre-CBS cult" refers to the popularity of Fenders made before the sale. Some studios save three B&W negatives exposed through red, green, and blue filters. Maverick) had been little more than attempts to squeeze profits out of factory stock. Most movies on cellulose nitrate base have been copied onto modern safety films.

Musiclander) and Custom (a.k.a. However, historic films have problems in terms of preservation and storage, and the motion picture industry is exploring many alternatives. In addition, previous models such as the Swinger (a.k.a. Film has also been incorporated into multimedia presentations, and often has importance as primary historical documentation. However, the sale is often now looked back upon unfavorably, due to the perception that CBS favored numbers and profit over quality; the culmination of this occurred in 1983, when the Stratocaster received a short-lived redesign without a second tone control and a bare-bones output jack. It can be used to present a progressive sequence of still images in the form of a slideshow. At first, the sale was a taken as a positive development, considering CBS' ability to bring in money and personnel. As a medium, film is not limited to motion pictures, since the technology developed as the basis for photography.

Fender's sale to CBS had far-reaching implications. The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the film, but for live-action pictures many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously. In early 1965, Leo Fender sold his company to the Columbia Broadcasting System, or CBS. Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras, allowing them to record at a consistent speed, the invention of more sophisticated filmstocks and lenses, allowing directors to film in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action. See the article on the Fender Telecaster for more details of the Fender company's early history. A new standard speed, 24 frames per second, came with the introduction of sound. At that point Leo renamed the company the "Fender Electric Instrument Company." The service shop remained open until 1951, although Leo Fender did not personally supervise it after 1947. Originally moving picture film was shot at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras; then the speed for mechanized cameras and projectors was standardized at 16 frames per second, which was faster than much existing hand-cranked footage.

Kauffman remained unconvinced, however, and they had amicably parted ways by early 1946. Stock widths and the film format for images on the reel have had a rich history, though most large commercial films are still shot on (and distributed to theaters) as 35 mm prints. By the end of the year, Fender had become convinced that manufacturing was more profitable than repair, and he decided to concentrate on that business. Cellulose nitrate was the first type of film base used to record motion pictures, but due to its flammability was eventually replaced by safer materials. Production began in 1945 with Hawaiian lap steel guitars (incorporating a patented pickup) and amplifiers, which were sold as sets. Filmstock consists of a transparent celluloid, polyester, or other plastic base coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive chemicals. By the early 1940s, he had partnered with another local electronics enthusiast named Clayton Orr (Doc) Kauffman, and they formed a company named "K & F Manufacturing Corp." to design, manufacture, and sell electric instruments and amplifiers. According to a 2000 study by ABN AMRO, about 26% of Hollywood movie studios' worldwide income came from box office ticket sales; 46% came from VHS and DVD sales to consumers; and 28% came from television (broadcast, cable, and pay-per-view).

He became intrigued by design flaws in current musical instrument amplifiers, and he began custom-building a few amplifiers based on his own designs or modifications to designs. There are a few movies every year that defy this rule, often limited-release movies that start in only a few theaters and actually grow their theater count through good word-of-mouth and reviews. The business also sidelined in carrying records for sale and the rental of self-designed-and-built PA systems. However, today's barrage of highly marketed movies ensures that most movies are shown in first-run theaters for less than 8 weeks. (Technical note: at the time, most of the above were simply variations on a few simple vacuum-tube circuits). The actual percentage starts with a number higher than that, and decreases as the duration of a film's showing continues, as an incentive to theaters to keep movies in the theater longer. As a qualified electronics technician, Leo was asked to repair not only radios, but phonograph players, home audio amplifiers, public address systems and musical instrument amplifiers. The movie theater pays an average of about 55% of its ticket sales to the movie studio, as film rental fees.

The company began as "Fender's Radio Service" in late 1938 in Fullerton, California, USA. And indeed, some films that are rejected by their own studios upon completion are dumped into these markets. . These are often considered to be of inferior quality compared to theatrical releases. Its headquarters are in Scottsdale, Arizona, with manufacturing facilities in Corona, California, and OCONUS manufacturing facilities in Ensenada (Mexico), Korea and Japan. Some films are now made specifically for these other venues, being released as made-for-TV movies or direct-to-video movies. Other popular and/or notable Fender instruments include the Mustang, Jazzmaster, Jaguar, Starcaster, Duosonic, and Bronco guitars; basses such as the Jazz Bass, the 'Telecaster Bass' reissue of the original 1950s Precision Bass; a line of lap steels, and the Fender Rhodes electric piano. Recording technology has also enabled consumers to rent or buy copies of films on video tape or DVD (and the older formats of laserdisc, VCD and SelectaVision—see also videodisc), and Internet downloads may be available and have started to become revenue sources for the film companies.

While other companies and luthiers had produced electric guitars since the late 1920s, nearly all were either hollow-body guitars with pickups attached, or more specialized instruments such as Rickenbacker's solid-body Hawaiian lap steel guitars. The development of television has allowed films to be broadcast to larger audiences, usually after the film is no longer being shown in theaters. Fender offered the first mass-produced solid-body Spanish-style electric guitar, the Telecaster (originally named the 'Broadcaster', 'Esquire' is a single pickup version); the first mass-produced electric bass, the Precision Bass (or P-Bass); and the enormously popular Stratocaster guitar (or 'Strat' for short). Originally, all films were made to be shown in movie theaters. Fender is particularly important because of its role in bringing solidbody electric guitars to the masses. Today, the bulk of the material shown before the feature film (those in theaters) consists of previews for upcoming movies and paid advertisements (also known as trailers or "The Twenty"). The Fender Musical Instruments Corporation, initially named the Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company, was started by Leo Fender in the 1940s, and is one of the most widely recognised manufacturers of electric guitars, electric basses and amplifiers. There were "double features"; typically, a high quality "A picture" rented by an independent theater for a lump sum, and a "B picture" of lower quality rented for a percentage of the gross receipts.

Zone. Typically, one film is the featured presentation (or feature film). VI. In the United States, these theaters came to be known as nickelodeons, because admission typically cost a nickel (five cents). Telecaster. Thousands of such theaters were built or converted from existing facilities within a few years. Performer. The first theater designed exclusively for cinema opened in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1905.

Precision. When it is initially produced, a film is normally shown to audiences in a movie theater. Mustang. This method was pioneered by UPA and popularized (some say exploited) by Hanna-Barbera, and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from movie theaters to television. Jaguar. Limited animation is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using "short cuts" in the animation process. Jazz. Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry.

Badtz-Maru Bronco Bass[2]. However, the field of independent animation has existed at least since the 1950s, with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). Swinger. Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for TV and movies comes from professional animation studios. Toronado. Graphics file formats like GIF, MNG, SVG and Flash allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet. J5 Telecaster. Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of computer animation has greatly sped up the process.

Telecaster Deluxe. When the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed at a speed of 16 or more frames per second, there is an illusion of continuous movement (due to the persistence of vision). Telecaster

    . Animation is the technique in which each frame of a film is produced individually, whether generated as a computer graphic, or by photographing a drawn image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see claymation and stop motion), and then photographing the result with a special animation camera. Super Strat. Most independent filmmakers rely on film festivals to get their films noticed and sold for distribution. Fat Strat. However, while the means of production may be democratized, financing, distribution, and marketing remain difficult to accomplish outside the traditional system.

    Yngwie Malmsteen Stratocaster. Filmmakers can conceivably shoot and edit a movie, create and edit the sound and music, and mix the final cut on a home computer. Stevie Ray Vaughan Signature Stratocaster. Since the introduction of DV technology, the means of production have become more democratized. Robert Cray Standard Stratocaster. Technologies such as DVDs, IEEE 1394 connections and non-linear editing system pro-level software like Adobe Premiere Pro and Final Cut Pro, and consumer level software such as Final Cut Express and iMovie make movie-making relatively inexpensive. Mark Knopfler Stratocaster. Both production and post-production costs have been significantly lowered; today, the hardware and software for post-production can be installed in a commodity-based personal computer.

    John Mayer Stratocaster. But the advent of consumer camcorders in 1985, and more importantly, the arrival of high-resolution digital video in the early 1990s, have lowered the technology barrier to movie production significantly. Jimmie Vaughan Tex-Mex Stratocaster. Film requires expensive lighting and post-production facilities. Jeff Beck Stratocaster. The cost of 35mm film is outpacing inflation: in 2002 alone, film negative costs were up 23%, according to Variety. Hello Kitty Stratocaster[1]. Until the advent of digital alternatives, the cost of professional film equipment and stock was also a hurdle to being able to produce, direct, or star in a traditional studio film.

    Eric Johnson Stratocaster. Films with unknowns, particularly in lead roles, are also rarely produced. Eric Clapton Stratocaster. An unproven director is almost never given the opportunity to get his or her big break with the studios unless he or she has significant industry experience in film or television. Buddy Guy Polka Dot Stratocaster. in 2000 were joint ventures, up from 10% in 1987). David Gilmour: owner of Strat #0001, formerly owned by Homer Haynes (a very early Strat in a custom color, but it was NOT the first Stratocaster ever made). The problem is exacerbated by the trend towards co-financing (over two-thirds of the films put out by Warner Bros.

    Stratocaster

      . On the business side, the costs of big-budget studio films also leads to conservative choices in cast and crew. Starcaster. Experimental elements in theme and style are inhibitors for the big studios. Showmaster. Creatively, it was becoming increasingly difficult to get studio backing for experimental films. Mustang. Creative, business, and technological reasons have all contributed to the growth of the indie film scene in the late 20th and early 21st century.

      Musicmaster. An independent film (or indie film) is a film initially produced without financing or distribution from a major movie studio. LTD. Filmmaking also takes place outside of the Hollywood studio system, and is commonly called independent filmmaking. Fender Lead Series. Crew are distinguished from cast, the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film. Katana. A film crew is a group of people hired by a film company for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture.

      Jazzmaster. The third year, post-production and distribution. Jaguar. The second year comprises preproduction and production. Jag-Stang. The first year is taken up with development. Electric XII. This production cycle typically takes three years.

      Duo-Sonic. A typical Hollywood-style filmmaking Production cycle comprises five main stages:. Cyclone. Filmmaking takes place all over the world using different technologies, styles of acting and genre, and is produced in a variety of economic contexts that range from state-sponsored documentary in China to profit-oriented movie making within the American studio system. Custom. However, a low-budget, independent film may be made with a skeleton crew, often paid very little. Coronado. Many Hollywood adventure films need computer generated imagery (CGI), created by dozens of 3D modellers, animators, rotoscopers and compositors.

      Bronco. The nature of the film determines the size and type of crew required during filmmaking. Broadcaster. Also, film quickly came to be used in education, in lieu of or in addition to lectures and texts. The Academy Awards (also known as The Oscars) are the most prominent film awards in the United States, providing recognition each year to films, ostensibly based on their artistic merits. Profit is a key force in the industry, due to the costly nature of filmmaking; yet many filmmakers strive to create works of lasting social significance.

      Though the expense involved in making movies has led cinema production to concentrate under the auspices of movie studios, recent advances in affordable film making equipment have allowed independent film productions to flourish. Whether the ten thousand plus features a year produced by the Valley porn industry should qualify for this title is the source of some debate. Other regional centers exist in many parts of the world, and the Indian film industry (primarily centered around "Bollywood") annually produces the largest number of films in the world. In the United States today, much of the film industry is centered around Hollywood.

      Already by 1917, Charlie Chaplin had a contract that called for an annual salary of one million dollars. Dedicated theaters and companies formed specifically to produce and distribute films, while motion picture actors became major celebrities and commanded huge fees for their performances. Other pictures soon followed, and motion pictures became a separate industry that overshadowed the vaudeville world. The Oberammergau Passion play of 1898 was the first commercial motion picture ever produced.

      In each country, they would normally add new, local scenes to their catalogue and, quickly enough, found local entrepreneurs in the various countries of Europe to buy their equipment and photograph, export, import and screen additional product commercially. Upon seeing how successful their new invention, and its product, was in their native France, the Lumieres quickly set about touring the Continent to exhibit the first films privately to royalty and publicly to the masses. The making and showing of motion pictures became a source of profit almost as soon the process was invented. They also tend to be affiliated with colleges or universities.

      Rather than write for newspaper or appear on television their articles are published in scholarly journals, or sometimes in up-market magazines. These film critics try to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people. This work is more often known as film theory or film studies. It is argued that journalist film critics should only be known as film reviewers, and true film critics are those who take a more academic approach to films.

      However, this usually backfires as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the film may not be worth seeing and the films often do poorly as a result. Conversely, there have been several films in which film companies have so little confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of the film. Others note that positive film reviews have been shown to spark interest in little-known films. However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily-promoted movies that were harshly reviewed, as well as the unexpected success of critically praised independent movies indicates that extreme critical reactions can have considerable influence.

      Some claim that movie marketing is now so intense and well financed that reviewers cannot make an impact against it. The impact of reviewer on a film's box office performance is a matter of debate. Poor reviews will often deign a film to obscurity and financial loss. For prestige films such as most dramas, the influence of reviews is extremely important.

      The plot summary and description of a film that makes up the majority of any film review can still have an important impact on whether people decide to see a film. Mass marketed action, horror, and comedy films tend not to be greatly affected by a critic's overall judgement of a film. Despite this, critics have an important impact of films, especially those of certain genres. Normally they only see any given film once and have only a day or two to formulate opinions.

      Film critics working for newspapers, magazines, and broadcast media mainly review new releases. In general this can be divided into academic criticism by film scholars and journalistic film criticism that appears regularly in newspapers and other media. Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of films. More recent analysis has given rise to psychoanalytical film theory, structuralist film theory, feminist film theory and others.

      Classical film theory provides a structural framework to address classical issues of techniques, narrativity, diegesis, cinematic codes, "the image", genre, subjectivity, and authorship. Film theory seeks to develop concise, systematic concepts that apply to the study of film/cinema as art. Digital technology has been the driving force in change throughout the 1990s and into the 21st Century. New Hollywood, French New Wave and the rise of film school educated, independent filmmakers were all part of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th Century.

      The 1950s, 60s and 70s saw changes in the production and style of film. By the end of the 1960s, color had become the norm for film makers. But as color processes improved and became as affordable as black-and-white film, more and more movies were filmed in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in America came to view color an essential to attracting audiences in its competition with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until the mid-60s. The public was relatively indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white.

      While the addition of sound quickly eclipsed silent film and theater musicians, color was adopted more gradually. The next major step in the development of cinema was the introduction of color. These sound films were initially distinguished by calling them "talking pictures", or talkies. In the 1920s, new technology allowed filmmakers to attach to each film a soundtrack of speech, music and sound effects synchronized with the action on the screen.

      Murnau continued to advance the medium. W. However in the 1920s, European filmmaker’s such as Sergei Eisenstein and F. The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the breakout of World War I while the film industry in United States flourished with the rise of Hollywood.

      By the early 1920s, most films came with a prepared list of sheet music for this purposes, with complete film scores being composed for major productions. Rather than leave the audience in silence, theater owners would hire a pianist or organist or a full orchestra to play music fitting the mood of the film at any given moment. Other techniques such as camera movement were realized as effective ways to portray a story on film. The scenes were later broken up into multiple shots of varying sizes and angles.

      Films began stringing scenes together to tell narratives. Around the turn of the 20th Century, films began developing a narrative structure. Motion pictures were purely visual art up to the late 1920s, but these innovative silent films had gained a hold on the public imagination. Early motion pictures were static shots that showed an event or action with no editing or other cinematic techniques.

      These reels, so exhibited, came to be known as "motion pictures". By the 1880s, the development of the motion picture camera allowed the individual component images to be captured and stored on a single reel, and led quickly to the development of a motion picture projector to shine light through the processed and printed film and magnify these "moving picture shows" onto a screen for an entire audience. Early versions of the technology sometimes required the viewer to look into a special device to see the pictures. With the development of celluloid film for still photography, it became possible to directly capture objects in motion in real time.

      Naturally, the images needed to be carefully designed to achieve the desired effect — and the underlying principle became the basis for the development of film animation. These machines were outgrowths of simple optical devices (such as magic lanterns), and would display sequences of still pictures at sufficient speed for the images on the pictures to appear to be moving, a phenomenon called persistence of vision. Mechanisms for producing artificially created, two-dimensional images in motion were demonstrated as early as the 1860s, with devices such as the zoetrope and the praxinoscope. .

      Films are also artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them. Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue. The visual elements of cinema need no translation, giving the motion picture a universal power of communication. Film is considered by many to be an important art form; films entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences.

      Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion — a psychological effect identified as beta movement. Flickering between frames is not seen due to an effect known as persistence of vision — whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. They comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown rapidly in succession, the illusion of motion is given to the viewer. Films are produced by recording actual people and objects with cameras, or by creating them using animation techniques and/or special effects.

      Many other terms exist — motion pictures (or just pictures or "picture"), the silver screen, photoplays, the cinema, picture shows, flicks — and most commonly movies. The origin of the name comes from the fact that photographic film (also called filmstock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Film is a term that encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. Distribution.

      Post-production. Production. Preproduction. Development.