Constantine I (emperor)(Redirected from Constantine the Great) Constantine.Head of the colossal statue. Musei Capitolini, Rome Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (Latin: IMP CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS ¹) (February 27, 272–May 22, 337), commonly known as Constantine I or Constantine the Great, was proclaimed Augustus by his troops on July 25, 306 and ruled an ever-growing portion of the Roman Empire until his death. Constantine is famed for his refounding of Byzantium (modern Istanbul) as "Nova Roma" (New Rome), which was popularly known in his time as "Constantine's City"— (Constantinopolis, Constantinople). Constantine is best remembered in modern times for the Edict of Milan in 313 and the Council of Nicaea in 325, which fully legalized and then legitimized Christianity in the Empire for the first time. These actions are considered major factors in that religion's spread, and his reputation as the "first Christian Emperor" has been promulgated by historians from Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea to the present day. Early lifeBronze statue of Constantine I outside York Minster, near where he was acclaimed Emperor in 306Constantine was born at Naissus, (today's Niš, Serbia, Serbia and Montenegro) in Upper Moesia, to Constantius I Chlorus, a general of Greek descent, and Flavia Iulia Helena, an innkeeper's daughter who at the time was an adolescent of only sixteen years. His father left his mother around 292 to marry Flavia Maximiana Theodora, daughter or step-daughter of the Western Roman Emperor Maximian. Theodora would give birth to six half-siblings of Constantine, including Julius Constantius. Young Constantine was well educated and served at the court of Diocletian in Nicomedia, after the appointment of his father as one of the two caesares(junior emperors) of the Tetrarchy in 293. In 305, the Augustus, Maximian, abdicated, and Constantius succeeded to the position. However, Constantius fell sick during an expedition against the Picts and Scots of Caledonia, and died on July 25, 306. Constantine managed to be at his deathbed in Eboracum (York) of Roman Britain, where the loyal general Crocus, of Alamannic descent, and the troops loyal to his father's memory proclaimed him an Augustus ("Emperor"). For the next eighteen years, he fought a series of battles and wars of consolidation that first obtained him co-rule with the Eastern Roman Emperor, and then finally leadership of a reunified Roman Empire. Constantine and Christianity
Constantine's Life and Actions after The Edict of MilanCoins struck for emperors often reveal details of their personal iconography. During the early part of Constantine's rule, representations first of Mars and then (from 310) of Apollo as Sun god consistently appear on the reverse of the coinage. Mars had been associated with the Tetrarchy, and Constantine's use of this symbolism served to emphasize the legitimacy of his rule. After his breach with his father's old colleague Maximian in 309–310, Constantine began to claim legitimate descent from the 3rd century emperor Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus, the hero of the Battle of Naissus (September, 268). The Augustan History of the 4th century reports Constantine's paternal grandmother Claudia to be a daughter of Crispus, Crispus being a reported brother of both Claudius II and Quintillus. Historians however suspect this account to be a genealogical fabrication to flatter Constantine. Coin of Constantine, with depiction of the sun god Sol Invictus, holding a globe and right hand raised. Legend "SOLI INVICTO COMITI".Gothicus had claimed the divine protection of Apollo-Sol Invictus. In mid-310, two years before the victory at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine reportedly experienced the publicly announced vision in which Apollo-Sol Invictus appeared to him with omens of success. Thereafter the reverses of his coinage were dominated for several years by his "companion, the unconquered Sol" -- the inscriptions read SOLI INVICTO COMITI. The depiction represents Apollo with a solar halo, Helios-like, and the globe in his hands. In the 320s Constantine has a halo of his own. There are also coins depicting Apollo driving the chariot of the Sun on a shield Constantine is holding and another (313?) shows the Christian chi-rho on a helmet Constantine is wearing. Constantine was also known for being ruthless with his political enemies, deposing the Eastern Roman Emperor Licinius, his brother-in-law, by strangulation in 325 even though he had publicly promised not to execute him upon Licinius' surrender in 324. In 326, Constantine executed first his eldest son Crispus and a few months later his own second wife Fausta. (Crispus was the only known son of Constantine by his first wife Minervina). There are rumours of step-mother and step-son having had an affair which caused Constantine's jealousy. The rumours were reported however by 5th century historian Zosimus and 12th century historian Joannes Zonaras. Their sources are not stated. Family influence is thought to account for a personal adoption of Christianity: Helena is said to be "probably born a Christian" though virtually nothing is known of her background, save that her mother was the daughter of an innkeeper and her father a successful soldier, a career that excluded overt Christians. Helena became known later in life for numerous pilgrimages. As the general custom, Constantine was not baptized until close to his death in 337, when his choice fell upon the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, who happened, despite his being an overt ally of Arius, to still be the bishop of the region. Also, Eusebius was a close friend of Constantine's sister; she probably secured his recall from exile. Staring eyes on later Constantine coinage.The great staring eyes in the iconography of Constantine, though not specifically Christian, show how official images were moving away from early imperial conventions of realistic portrayal towards schematic representations: the Emperor as Emperor, not merely as this particular individual Constantine, with his characteristic broad jaw and cleft chin. The large staring eyes will loom larger as the 4th century progresses: compare the early 5th century silver coinage of Theodosius I. Later LifeHis victory in 312 over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge resulted in his becoming Western Augustus, or ruler of the entire Western Roman Empire. He gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In the year 320, Licinius, emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began another persecution of the Christians. This was a puzzling inconsistency since Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius, was an influential Christian. It became a challenge to Constantine in the west, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. The armies were so large another like these would not be seen again until at least the 14th century. Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient faith of Paganism. Constantine and his Franks marched under the Christian standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious. He was the sole emperor of the entire Roman Empire. (MacMullen 1969) This battle represented the passing of old Rome, and the beginnings of the Eastern Empire as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation. Constantine rebuilt the city of Byzantium which was said to have been founded by colonists from the Greek city of Megara under Byzas in 667 BC. He renamed the city Nova Roma (New Rome), providing it with a Senate and civic offices similar to the older Rome, and the new city was protected by the alleged True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics. The figures of old gods were replaced and often assimilated into Christian symbolism. On the site of a temple to Aphrodite was built the new Basilica of the Apostles. Generations later there was the story that a Divine vision lead Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. After his death it was renamed Constantinopolis (or Constantinople, "Constantine's City"), and gradually became the capital of the empire. (MacMullen 1969) Constantine also passed laws making the occupations of butcher and baker hereditary, and more importantly, supported converting the coloni (tenant farmers) into serfs — laying the foundation for European society during the Middle Ages. In his later life he even turned to preaching, giving his own sermons in the palace before his court and invited crowds. His sermons preached harmony at first, but gradually turned more confrontational with the old pagan ways. The reason for this later "change of heart" remains conjectural. However, pagans still received appointments, even up to the end of his life. Exerting his absolute power, the army recited his composed Latin prayer in an attempt to convert them to Christianity, which failed. He began a large building program of churches in the Holy Land, which while greatly expanding the faith also allowed considerable increase in the power and wealth (and as such the corruption) of the clergy, as the clergy took over many aspects of government, including the courts and civil cases. Constantine's Legal StandardsConstantine's laws in many ways improved those of his predecessors, though they also reflect his more violent age. Some examples:
(MacMullen 1969, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908) Constantine's Courts and AppointeesConstantine respected cultivation and Christianity, and his court was composed of older, respected, and honored men. Leading Roman families that refused Christianity were denied positions of power, yet two-thirds of his top government was non-Christian. (MacMullen 1969,1984, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908) "From Pagan temples Constantine had his statue removed. The repair of Pagan temples that had decayed was forbidden. These funds were given to the favored Christian clergy. Offensive forms of worship, either Christian or Pagan, were suppressed. At the dedication of Constantinople in 330 a ceremony half Pagan and half Christian was performed, in the market place, the Cross of Christ was placed over the head of the Sun-God's chariot. There was a singing of hymns." (New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908) Constantine's LegacyAlthough he earned his honorific of "The Great" from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements alone. In addition to reuniting the empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni (306–308), the Franks again (313–314), the Visigoths in 332 and the Sarmatians in 334. In fact, by 336, Constantine had actually reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia, which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to put an end to raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. He was succeeded by his three sons by Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans, who secured their hold on the empire with the murder of a number of relatives and supporters of Constantine. The last member of his dynasty was his nephew and son-in-law, Julian, who attempted to restore paganism. Geoffrey of Monmouth and a Constantine made BritishThe English chronicler Geoffrey of Monmouth offered a genealogy of British kings that linked them to the Fall of Troy at the end of the Trojan War. His Historia Regum Britanniae (written ca. 1136 during the reign of Stephen of England) is not considered a reliable source by modern historians. Geoffrey claimed that Helena, Constantine's mother, was actually the daughter of "King Cole", the mythical King of the Britons and eponymous founder of Colchester. A daughter for King Cole had not previously figured in the lore, at least not as it has survived in writing, and this pedigree is likely to reflect Geoffrey's desire to create a continuous line of regal descent. It was indecorous, Geoffrey considered, that a king might have less-than-noble ancestors. Monmouth also said that Constantine was proclaimed "King of the Britons" at York, rather than Roman Emperor. Notes1- In the English language, Constantine's official Imperial title is Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Augustus, the blessed, the lucky, the unconquerable. After 312, he added maximus ("the greatest"), and after 325 replaced invictus ("unconquerable") with victor, as invictus reminded of Sol Invictus, the Sun God. Links
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References and Further reading
The Association of Ancient Historians has honored Ramsay MacMullen as being the finest ancient historian of the Roman Empire in our time. Some may find him difficult, he speaks the language of the professional scholar, but reading his works is certainly worth the time and effort.
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Some may find him difficult, he speaks the language of the professional scholar, but reading his works is certainly worth the time and effort. This assertion remains highly controversial, (see Shakespearean authorship for additional details) yet these historians believe it makes the most sense. The Association of Ancient Historians has honored Ramsay MacMullen as being the finest ancient historian of the Roman Empire in our time. Some historians have extended Bacon's acknowledged body of work by claiming that Bacon was the author of the plays usually attributed to William Shakespeare. [3]. Where philosophy is based on reason, faith is based on revelation, and therefore irrational—in De augmentis he writes that "[t]he more discordant, therefore, and incredible, the divine mystery is, the more honor is shown to God in believing it, and the nobler is the victory of faith.". [2]. Bacon distinctly separates religion and philosophy, though the two can coexist. After 312, he added maximus ("the greatest"), and after 325 replaced invictus ("unconquerable") with victor, as invictus reminded of Sol Invictus, the Sun God. No universal rules can be made, as both situations and men's characters differ. 1- In the English language, Constantine's official Imperial title is Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Augustus, the blessed, the lucky, the unconquerable. Any moral action is the action of the human will, which is governed by reason and spurred on by the passions; habit is what aids men in directing their will toward the good. Monmouth also said that Constantine was proclaimed "King of the Britons" at York, rather than Roman Emperor. He distinguishes between duty to the community, an ethical matter, and duty to God, a purely religious matter. It was indecorous, Geoffrey considered, that a king might have less-than-noble ancestors. Bacon's somewhat fragmentary ethical system, derived through use of his methods, is explicated in the seventh and eighth books of his De augmentis scientiarum (1623). A daughter for King Cole had not previously figured in the lore, at least not as it has survived in writing, and this pedigree is likely to reflect Geoffrey's desire to create a continuous line of regal descent. Bacon's developments of the inductive philosophy would revolutionise the future thought of the human race. Geoffrey claimed that Helena, Constantine's mother, was actually the daughter of "King Cole", the mythical King of the Britons and eponymous founder of Colchester. The end of induction is the discovery of forms, the ways in which natural phenomena occur, the causes from which they proceed. 1136 during the reign of Stephen of England) is not considered a reliable source by modern historians. These are called "Idols" (idola), and are of four kinds: "Idols of the Tribe" (idola tribus), which are common to the race; "Idols of the Den" (idola specus), which are peculiar to the individual; "Idols of the Marketplace" (idola fori), coming from the misuse of language; and "Idols of the Theater" (idola theatri), which result from an abuse of authority. His Historia Regum Britanniae (written ca. Before beginning this induction, the inquirer is to free his mind from certain false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. The English chronicler Geoffrey of Monmouth offered a genealogy of British kings that linked them to the Fall of Troy at the end of the Trojan War. Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but rather a method of developing philosophy; he wrote that, whilst philosophy at the time used the deductive syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to law. The last member of his dynasty was his nephew and son-in-law, Julian, who attempted to restore paganism. The intellect of Bacon was one of the most powerful and searching ever possessed by man. He was succeeded by his three sons by Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans, who secured their hold on the empire with the murder of a number of relatives and supporters of Constantine. Bacon also wrote In felicem memoriam Elizabethae, a eulogy for the queen written in 1609; and various philosophical works which constitute the fragmentary and incomplete Instauratio magna, the most important part of which is the Novum Organum (published 1620). At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to put an end to raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. His famous aphorism, "knowledge is power", is found in the Meditations. In fact, by 336, Constantine had actually reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia, which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. Bacon's works include his Essays, as well as the Colours of Good and Evil and the Meditationes Sacrae, all published in 1597. In addition to reuniting the empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni (306–308), the Franks again (313–314), the Visigoths in 332 and the Sarmatians in 334. He died on April 9, 1626, leaving debts to the amount of £22,000. Although he earned his honorific of "The Great" from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements alone. He died at Highgate. There was a singing of hymns." (New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908). Bacon purchased a chicken (fowl) to investigate this possibility, but, during the endeavour of stuffing it with snow, contracted a fatal case of pneumonia. At the dedication of Constantinople in 330 a ceremony half Pagan and half Christian was performed, in the market place, the Cross of Christ was placed over the head of the Sun-God's chariot. In March, 1626, he came to London, and shortly after, when driving on a snowy day, he was inspired by the possibility of using snow to preserve meat. Offensive forms of worship, either Christian or Pagan, were suppressed. Francis Bacon's death had a considerable element of irony. These funds were given to the favored Christian clergy. Innocents Day. The repair of Pagan temples that had decayed was forbidden. I am as innocent of bribes as any born on St. "From Pagan temples Constantine had his statue removed. I know I have clean hands and a clean heart. (MacMullen 1969,1984, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908). When the book of all hearts is opened, I trust I shall not be found to have the troubled fountain of a corrupt heart. Leading Roman families that refused Christianity were denied positions of power, yet two-thirds of his top government was non-Christian. I was the justest judge, that was in England these last fifty years. Constantine respected cultivation and Christianity, and his court was composed of older, respected, and honored men. Bacon commenting on his impeachment as Chancellor in which he was forced to plead guilty to bribery charges in order to save King James from a political scandal stated:. (MacMullen 1969, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908). However, subsequent research by Nieves Mathews in her book, Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination, Yale University Press, sets the record straight by demonstrating that Bacon was completely innocent of the bribery charges and that opportune writers from later times were themselves guilty of slandering Bacon's reputation and unfairly influencing later generations about the actual facts of this predicament. Some examples:. Thenceforth he devoted himself to study and writing. Constantine's laws in many ways improved those of his predecessors, though they also reflect his more violent age. He narrowly escaped being deprived of his titles. He began a large building program of churches in the Holy Land, which while greatly expanding the faith also allowed considerable increase in the power and wealth (and as such the corruption) of the clergy, as the clergy took over many aspects of government, including the courts and civil cases. To the lords, who sent a committee to inquire whether the confession was really his, he replied, "My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000, remitted by the king, to be committed to the Tower during the king's pleasure (which was that he should be released in a few days), and to be incapable of holding office or sitting in parliament. Exerting his absolute power, the army recited his composed Latin prayer in an attempt to convert them to Christianity, which failed. His public career ended in disgrace in 1621 when, after having fallen into debt, a Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with corruption under 23 counts; and so clear was the evidence that he made no attempt at defence. However, pagans still received appointments, even up to the end of his life. He was corrupt alike politically and judicially, and now the hour of retribution arrived. The reason for this later "change of heart" remains conjectural. showed a failure of character in striking contrast with the majesty of his intellect. His sermons preached harmony at first, but gradually turned more confrontational with the old pagan ways. In his great office B. In his later life he even turned to preaching, giving his own sermons in the palace before his court and invited crowds. Bacon continued to receive the King's favor, and in 1618 was appointed by James to the position of Lord Chancellor. Constantine also passed laws making the occupations of butcher and baker hereditary, and more importantly, supported converting the coloni (tenant farmers) into serfs — laying the foundation for European society during the Middle Ages. His obvious influence over the king inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers. (MacMullen 1969). The parliament of April 1614 objected to Bacon's presence in the seat for Cambridge—he was allowed to stay, but a law was passed that forbade the attorney-general to sit in parliament—and to the various royal plans which Bacon had supported. After his death it was renamed Constantinopolis (or Constantinople, "Constantine's City"), and gradually became the capital of the empire. In 1613, Bacon was finally able to become attorney-general, by dint of advising the king to shuffle judicial appointments; and in this capacity he would prosecute Somerset in 1616. Generations later there was the story that a Divine vision lead Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. Through this Bacon managed in frequent debate to uphold the prerogative, while retaining the confidence of the Commons. On the site of a temple to Aphrodite was built the new Basilica of the Apostles. Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons found themselves frequently at odds over royal prerogatives and the king's embarrassing extravagance, and the House was dissolved in February 1611. The figures of old gods were replaced and often assimilated into Christian symbolism. In 1610 the famous fourth parliament of James met. He renamed the city Nova Roma (New Rome), providing it with a Senate and civic offices similar to the older Rome, and the new city was protected by the alleged True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics. However, Bacon's services were rewarded in June 1607 with the office of Solicitor. Constantine rebuilt the city of Byzantium which was said to have been founded by colonists from the Greek city of Megara under Byzas in 667 BC. Meanwhile (in 1608), he had entered upon the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, and was in the enjoyment of a large income; but old debts and present extravagance kept him embarrassed, and he endeavoured to obtain further promotion and wealth by supporting the king in his arbitrary policy. This battle represented the passing of old Rome, and the beginnings of the Eastern Empire as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation. Little or nothing is known of their married life: modern scholars speculate that he may have been a homosexual. (MacMullen 1969). In the course of the uneventful first parliament session Bacon married Alice Barnham, the daughter of a London merchant. He was the sole emperor of the entire Roman Empire. The accession of James I brought Bacon into greater favour; he was knighted in 1603, and endeavoured to set himself right with the new powers by writing his Apologie (defence) of his proceedings in the case of Essex, who had favoured the succession of James. Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious. He received a gift of a fine of £1200 on one of Essex's accomplices. Constantine and his Franks marched under the Christian standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. the Earl of Essex, etc. Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient faith of Paganism. This act Bacon endeavoured to justify in A Declaration of the Practices and Treasons, etc., of .. The armies were so large another like these would not be seen again until at least the 14th century. His relationship with the queen also improved when he severed ties with Essex, a fortunate move considering that the latter would be executed for treason in 1601; and Bacon was one of those appointed to investigate the charges against him, and examine witnesses, in connection with which he showed an ungrateful and indecent eagerness in pressing the case against his former friend and benefactor. It became a challenge to Constantine in the west, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. She had begun to employ him in crown affairs a few years previously, and he gradually acquired the standing of one of the learned counsel, though he had no commission or warrant and received no salary. This was a puzzling inconsistency since Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius, was an influential Christian. His standing in the queen's eyes, however, was beginning to improve. In the year 320, Licinius, emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began another persecution of the Christians. His friends could find no public office for him, a scheme for retrieving his position by a marriage with the wealthy widow Lady Elizabeth Hatton failed, and in 1598 he was arrested for debt. He gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. During the next few years, his financial situation remained bad. His victory in 312 over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge resulted in his becoming Western Augustus, or ruler of the entire Western Roman Empire. In 1596 he was made a Queen's Counsel, but missed the appointment of Master of the Rolls. The large staring eyes will loom larger as the 4th century progresses: compare the early 5th century silver coinage of Theodosius I. To console him for these disappointments Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which he subsequently sold for £1800, equivalent to a much larger sum now. The great staring eyes in the iconography of Constantine, though not specifically Christian, show how official images were moving away from early imperial conventions of realistic portrayal towards schematic representations: the Emperor as Emperor, not merely as this particular individual Constantine, with his characteristic broad jaw and cleft chin. When the Attorney-Generalship fell vacant in 1594 and Bacon became a candidate for the office, Lord Essex's influence could not secure him the position; in fashion, Bacon failed to become solicitor in 1595. Also, Eusebius was a close friend of Constantine's sister; she probably secured his recall from exile. His opposition to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time (he objected to the time span) offended many people; he was accused of seeking popularity, and was for a time excluded from the court. As the general custom, Constantine was not baptized until close to his death in 337, when his choice fell upon the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, who happened, despite his being an overt ally of Arius, to still be the bishop of the region. Bacon took his seat for Middlesex when in February 1593 Elizabeth called a Parliament to investigate a Catholic plot against her. Helena became known later in life for numerous pilgrimages. By 1591 he was acting as the earl's confidential adviser. Family influence is thought to account for a personal adoption of Christianity: Helena is said to be "probably born a Christian" though virtually nothing is known of her background, save that her mother was the daughter of an innkeeper and her father a successful soldier, a career that excluded overt Christians. During this period Bacon became acquainted with Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex (1567-1601), Queen Elizabeth's favourite. Their sources are not stated. About this time he seems again to have approached his powerful uncle, the result of which may possibly be traced in his rapid progress at the Bar, and in his receiving, in 1589, the reversion to the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, a valuable appointment, the enjoyment of which, however, he did not enter into until 1608. The rumours were reported however by 5th century historian Zosimus and 12th century historian Joannes Zonaras. In the Parliament of 1586 he took a prominent part in urging the execution of Mary Queen of Scots. There are rumours of step-mother and step-son having had an affair which caused Constantine's jealousy. He wrote on the condition of parties in the church, and he set down his thoughts on philosophical reform in the lost tract, Temporis Partus Maximus, but he failed to obtain a position of the kind he thought necessary for success. (Crispus was the only known son of Constantine by his first wife Minervina). In 1584 he took his seat in parliament for Melcombe in Dorset, and subsequently for Taunton (1586). In 326, Constantine executed first his eldest son Crispus and a few months later his own second wife Fausta. His application failed, and for the next two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn giving himself seriously to the study of law, until admitted as an outer barrister in 1582. Constantine was also known for being ruthless with his political enemies, deposing the Eastern Roman Emperor Licinius, his brother-in-law, by strangulation in 325 even though he had publicly promised not to execute him upon Licinius' surrender in 324. Knowing that a prestigious post would aid him toward these ends, in 1580 he applied, through his uncle, Lord Burghley, for some post at court which might enable him to devote himself to a life of learning. There are also coins depicting Apollo driving the chariot of the Sun on a shield Constantine is holding and another (313?) shows the Christian chi-rho on a helmet Constantine is wearing. In the fragment De Interpretatione Naturae Prooemium (written probably about 1603) Bacon analyses his own mental character and establishes his goals, which were threefold: discovery of truth, service to his country, and service to the church. In the 320s Constantine has a halo of his own. To support himself, he took up his residence in law at Gray's Inn in 1579. The depiction represents Apollo with a solar halo, Helios-like, and the globe in his hands. Having started with insufficient means, he borrowed money and became habitually in debt. Thereafter the reverses of his coinage were dominated for several years by his "companion, the unconquered Sol" -- the inscriptions read SOLI INVICTO COMITI. Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that money. In mid-310, two years before the victory at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine reportedly experienced the publicly announced vision in which Apollo-Sol Invictus appeared to him with omens of success. The sudden death of his father in February 1579 necessitated Bacon's return to England, and seriously influenced his fortunes. Gothicus had claimed the divine protection of Apollo-Sol Invictus. The disturbed state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. Historians however suspect this account to be a genealogical fabrication to flatter Constantine. On June 27, 1576, he and Anthony were entered de societate magistrorum at Gray's Inn, and a few months later they went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador at Paris. The Augustan History of the 4th century reports Constantine's paternal grandmother Claudia to be a daughter of Crispus, Crispus being a reported brother of both Claudius II and Quintillus. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his dislike of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed barren, disputatious, and wrong in its objectives. After his breach with his father's old colleague Maximian in 309–310, Constantine began to claim legitimate descent from the 3rd century emperor Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus, the hero of the Battle of Naissus (September, 268). Here also his studies of science brought him to the conclusion that the methods (and thus the results) were erroneous. Mars had been associated with the Tetrarchy, and Constantine's use of this symbolism served to emphasize the legitimacy of his rule. At Cambridge he first met the Queen, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to call him "the young Lord Keeper.". During the early part of Constantine's rule, representations first of Mars and then (from 310) of Apollo as Sun god consistently appear on the reverse of the coinage. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1573 at the age of 13, living for three years there with his older brother Anthony Bacon. Coins struck for emperors often reveal details of their personal iconography. Biographers believe that Bacon received an education at home in his early years, and that his health during that time, as later, was delicate. For the next eighteen years, he fought a series of battles and wars of consolidation that first obtained him co-rule with the Eastern Roman Emperor, and then finally leadership of a reunified Roman Empire. His mother, Ann Cooke Bacon was the second wife of Sir Nicholas, a member of the Reformed or Puritan Church, and a daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, whose sister married William Cecil, Lord Burghley, the great minister of Queen Elizabeth. Constantine managed to be at his deathbed in Eboracum (York) of Roman Britain, where the loyal general Crocus, of Alamannic descent, and the troops loyal to his father's memory proclaimed him an Augustus ("Emperor"). He was the youngest of five sons of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal under Elizabeth I. However, Constantius fell sick during an expedition against the Picts and Scots of Caledonia, and died on July 25, 306. Francis Bacon was born at York House, Strand, London. In 305, the Augustus, Maximian, abdicated, and Constantius succeeded to the position. . Young Constantine was well educated and served at the court of Diocletian in Nicomedia, after the appointment of his father as one of the two caesares(junior emperors) of the Tetrarchy in 293. In the context of his time, such methods were connected with the occult trends of hermeticism and alchemy. Theodora would give birth to six half-siblings of Constantine, including Julius Constantius. Induction implies drawing knowledge from the natural world through experimentation, observation, and testing of hypotheses. His father left his mother around 292 to marry Flavia Maximiana Theodora, daughter or step-daughter of the Western Roman Emperor Maximian. His works establish and popularize an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method. Constantine was born at Naissus, (today's Niš, Serbia, Serbia and Montenegro) in Upper Moesia, to Constantius I Chlorus, a general of Greek descent, and Flavia Iulia Helena, an innkeeper's daughter who at the time was an adolescent of only sixteen years. He began his professional life as a lawyer, but he has become best known as a philosophical advocate and defender of the scientific revolution. . He was knighted in 1603, created Baron Verulam in 1618, and created Viscount St Albans in 1621; both peerage titles becoming extinct upon his death. These actions are considered major factors in that religion's spread, and his reputation as the "first Christian Emperor" has been promulgated by historians from Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea to the present day. Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Albans, KC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, spy, freemason and essayist. Constantine is best remembered in modern times for the Edict of Milan in 313 and the Council of Nicaea in 325, which fully legalized and then legitimized Christianity in the Empire for the first time. Some material originally from the 1911 Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion.. Constantine is famed for his refounding of Byzantium (modern Istanbul) as "Nova Roma" (New Rome), which was popularly known in his time as "Constantine's City"— (Constantinopolis, Constantinople). Dutton. Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (Latin: IMP CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS ¹) (February 27, 272–May 22, 337), commonly known as Constantine I or Constantine the Great, was proclaimed Augustus by his troops on July 25, 306 and ruled an ever-growing portion of the Roman Empire until his death. Dent & sons; New York, E.P. Rassias,"Es Edafos Ferein", 2nd edition, Athens, 2000, ISBN 960-7748-20-4. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London, J.M. Vlassis R. This article incorporates text from: Cousin, John William (1910). Marcus Cornelius Fronto, Letters of Marcus Cornelius Fronto. This article incorporates text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, which is in the public domain.. Galen, On the Natural Faculties. Sources on the Antonine Plague
"Donatists", by John Chapman. The Catholic Encyclpedia (1908). Herbermann and Georg Grupp. "Constantine the Great", by Charles G. Lactantius , (AD 240-320) Of the Manner the in Which the Persecutors Died,. Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911: Constantine. Eusebius of Caesarea, The Life of the blessed Emperor Constantine in 4 books from AD 306 to 337. Wilken, Robert L., 1984 Christians As the Romans Saw Them (Yale). Enemies of the Roman Order: Treason, Unrest, and Alienation (Harvard). MacMullen, Ramsay, 1966. Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the Ordinary (Princeton). MacMullen, Ramsay, 1990. 100-400, (Yale). MacMullen, Ramsay, 1984, Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. Constantine, (Dial Press). MacMullen, Ramsay, 1969. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe (Macmillan). Jones, A.H.M., 1949. Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety: Some Aspects of the Religious Experience from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine (Cambridge). R., 1965. Dodds, E. R., 1964 The Greeks and the Irrational (University of California). Dodds, E. Archer, translator, A Chronicle of the Last Pagans (Harvard) ISBN 0-674-12970-9. A. Chuvin, Pierre, 1990, B. Ancient History. Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project. Constantine's open letter Letter to Alexander and Arius. The Edict of Milan AD 313 [4]. Ammianus Marcellinus. Donatist. Forvm Ancient Coins: Constantine the Great, early AD 307-22 May 337. Also see Arch of Constantine: Constantinian Art on the Arch. Arch of Constantine Monument to the victory at Milvian Bridge. Diocletian: Edicts against the Christians [1]. RomanEmperors.org Vita of Constantine; with bibliography. Easter could be publicly celebrated. Criminals were still to be crucified and put on display, to show there was Roman law and justice, until 337. A slave master's rights were limited, but a slave could still be beaten to death. Gladiatorial games were ordered to be eliminated in 325, although this had little real effect. Parents caught allowing (or soliciting?) their daughters to be seduced were to have molten lead poured down their throats. A condemned man was allowed to die in the arena, but he could not be branded on his "heavenly beautifed" face, just on the feet. A prisoner was no longer to be kept in total darkness, but must be given the outdoors and daylight. A punishment of death was mandated to anyone collecting taxes over the authorized amount. |