Aircraft

Business jets are typically flown by commercial pilots, although there is a new generation of small jets arriving soon for private pilots. Several genres of art are grouped by cultural relevance, examples can be found in terms such as:. Piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or twin-engine) are especially common for both private and commercial general aviation, but even private pilots occasionally own and operate helicopters like the Bell JetRanger or turboprops like the Beechcraft King Air. See main article: Symbols. Commercial general aviation pilots use aircraft for a wide range of tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical transport (medevac). Contemporary artist Andy Goldsworthy, on the other hand, chose to use the medium of found natural objects and materials to arrange temporary sculptures. Usually these private pilots own their own aircraft and take out loans from banks or specialized lenders to purchase them. For example, Vasily Kandinsky developed his use of color in painting through a system of stimulus response, where over time he gained an understanding of the emotions that can be evoked by color and combinations of color.

Private pilots use aircraft primarily for personal travel, business travel, or recreation. Much of the development of individual artist deals with finding principles for how to express certain ideas through various kinds of symbolism. Within general aviation, the major distinction is between private flights (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial flights (where the pilot is paid by a customer or employer). It may also be taken to encompass a study of the theories of art, which may or may not include an examination of their historical context. The vast majority of flights flown around the world each day belong to the general aviation category, ranging from recreational balloon flying to civilian flight training to business trips to firefighting to medevac flights to cargo transportation on freight aircraft. The term 'art history' typically refers to a historical examination of the various trends of the visual arts through certain periods of human history. Civil aviation includes both scheduled airline flights and general aviation, a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial use. The interpretation of this language is very dependent upon the observer’s perspective and context, and it might be argued that the very subjectivity of art demonstrates its importance in providing an arena in which rival ideas might be exchanged and discussed, or to provide a social context in which disparate groups of people might congregate and mingle.

By the time of the Vietnam War, helicopters had come into widespread military use, especially for transporting and supporting ground troops. From a more anthropological perspective, art is a way of passing ideas and concepts on to later generations in a (somewhat) universal language. Tankers were developed after World War II to refuel other aircraft in mid-air, thus increasing their operational range. In a more negative aspect of this facet, art is often utilised as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood (in some cases, artworks are appropriated to be used in this manner, without the creator's initial intention). In order to prevent the enemy from bombing, fighter aircraft were developed to intercept and shoot down enemy aircraft. In a social context, it can serve to soothe the soul and promote popular morale. During World War I many types of aircraft were adapted for attacking the ground or enemy vehicles/ships/guns/aircraft, and the first aircraft designed as bombers were born. From the artist’s perspective it allows one to symbolize complex ideas and emotions in an arbitrary language subject only to the interpretation of the self and peers.

Combat aircraft themselves, though used a handful of times for reconnaissance and surveillance during the Italo-Turkish War, did not come into widespread use until the Balkan War when first air-dropped bomb was invented and widely used by Bulgarian air force against Turkey. When art is conceived as a device, it serves several context and perspective specific functions. In the past, gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the American Civil War and World War I, and cargo gliders were used during World War II to land intruding German troops in many European countries in the 1940/42 period, while Allied troops used them in Europe after D-Day . The "use" of art from the artist’s standpoint is as a means of expression. Even the little fabric-covered two-seater Piper J3 Cub had a military version, the L-4 liaison, observation and trainer aircraft. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy. military and the Dakota in Britain and the Commonwealth. The end product is not the principal goal in this case; rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought.

Many civil aircraft have been produced in separate models for military use, such as the civil Douglas DC-3 airliner, which became the military C-47/C-53/R4D transport in the U.S. Art is also used by art therapists and some psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. Combat aircraft like fighters or bombers represent only a minority of the category. It might also be argued that non-utilitarian is, in this context, a mis-usage; that art is not in and of itself, useless, but rather that it particularly use does not manifest itself in any traditionally demonstrable way (though advances in neuroscience may arguably enable the isolation of those associated cortices of the brain concerned with the creation or appreciation of art). The major distinction in aircraft usage is between military aviation, which includes all uses of aircraft for military purposes (such as combat, patrolling, search and rescue, reconnaissance, transport, and training), and civil aviation, which includes all uses of aircraft for non-military purposes. Opponents of this view argue that all human activity has some utilitarian function, and these objects claimed to be "non-utilitarian" actually have the rather mundane and banal utility of attempting to mystify and codify unworkable justifications for arbitrary social hierarchy. They are restricted to rather specialised niches, such as spaceflight, where no oxygen is available for combustion (rockets carry their own oxygen). This fits within the "art as good" system of definitions and suffers from a class prejudice against labor and utility.

Rocket aircraft have occasionally been experimented with. There are many who ascribe to certain arts the quality of being non-utilitarian. In addition to turbine engines like the turboprop and turbojet, other types of high-altitude, high-performance engines have included the ramjet and the pulse jet. This is seen in the 20th and 21st century by the commissioning or purchasing of art by big businesses and corporations as decoration for their offices. Helicopters also typically use turbine engines. However, arrangements of "fine" and expensive goods have always been used by institutions of power as marks of their own status. Pressurised aircraft, however, are more likely to use the turbine engine, since it is naturally efficient at higher altitudes and can operate above 40,000 ft. After Europe was re-exposed to classical culture during the Renaissance, particularly in the nation-states of what is now Italy (Florence, Siena), artists gained an association with high status.

During the forties and especially following the 1973 energy crisis, development work was done on propellers with swept tips or even scimitar-shaped blades for use in high-speed commercial and military transports. Before the 13th century in Europe, artisans were considered to belong to a lower caste, since they were essentially manual labourers. Piston engines normally become less efficient above 7,000-8,000 ft (2100-2400 m) above sea level because there is less oxygen available for combustion; to solve that problem, some piston engines have mechanically powered compressors (blowers) or turbine-powered turbochargers or turbonormalizers that compress the air before feeding it into the engine; these piston engines can often operate efficiently at 20,000 ft (6100 m) above sea level or higher, altitudes that require the use of supplemental oxygen or cabin pressurisation. Collecting such art is the preserve of the rich, in one viewpoint. Piston engines typically operate using avgas or regular gasoline, though some new ones are being designed to operate on diesel or jet fuel. Petersburg with their vast collections of art, amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of Europe exemplify this view. Water cooled V engines, as used in automobiles, were common in high speed aircraft, until they were replaced by jet and turbine power. The palaces of Versailles or the Hermitage in St.

(See also: Aircraft engine.) The piston engine is still used in the majority of aircraft produced, since it is efficient at the lower altitudes used by small aircraft, but the radial engine (with the cylinders arranged in a circle around the crankshaft) has largely given way to the horizontally-opposed engine (with the cylinders lined up on two sides of the crankshaft). In this context, art is seen as a high-status activity associated with wealth, the ability to purchase art, and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it. Until World War II, the internal combustion piston engine was virtually the only type of propulsion used for powered aircraft. Art is often seen as belonging to one social class and excluding others. Airships combine a balloon's buoyancy with some kind of propulsion, usually propeller driven. The placement of an object in an artistic context is not taken as a universal standard of art, but is a common characteristic of conceptual art, prevalent since the 1960s; notably, the Stuckist art movement criticises this tendency of recent art. For gliders, takeoff takes place from a high location, or the aircraft is pulled into the air by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or towed aloft by a powered "tug" aircraft. It should be noted, however, that Duchamps act might be as readily interpreted as a demonstration of the (not always beneficial) power of artistic institutions, rather than the universal art potentially inherent in all objects.

Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). This type of recontextualizing provides the same spark of connection expected from any traditionally created art. Some types of aircraft, such as the balloon or glider, do not have any propulsion. Once accepted and viewed with a fresh eye, the smooth, white surfaces of Duchamp's urinal are strikingly similar to classical marble sculptural forms, whether the artist intended it or not. These designs may have potential but are not yet practical. The objects needed to be absorbed into the general consensus of what art is before they achieved the near-universal acceptance as art in the contemporary era. And finally the flapping-wing ornithopter is a category of its own. Most viewers of these objects initially rejected such associations, because the objects did not, themselves, meet the accepted criteria.

It is (2005) in development in the United Kingdom. Most people did not consider the depiction of a Brillo Box or a store-bought urinal to be art until Andy Warhol and Marcel Duchamp (respectively) placed them in the context of art (i.e., the art gallery), which then provided the association of these objects with the values that define art (Although, strictly speaking, Warhol's artwork was not an actual Brillo box but an exact replica of one - so it met the traditional criterion of skill at the very least). This uses a fixed wing with a forced airflow produced by cylindrical fans mounted above. This derives from education and other social factors. A recent innovation is a completely new class of aircraft, the fan wing. Many people's opinions of what art is would fall inside a relatively small range of accepted standards, or "institutional definition of art" (George Dickie 1974). A further category might encompass the wing-in-ground-effect types, for example the Russian ekranoplan also nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster" and hovercraft; most of the latter employing a skirt and achieving limited ground or water clearance to reduce friction and achieve speeds above those achieved by boats of similar weight. That is, by witnessing the sufferings and celebrations of actors onstage onlookers might vicariously experience these same feelings themselves, and thereby purge such negative feelings.

Some craft have reaction-powered rotors with gas jets at the tips but most have one or more lift rotors powered from engine-driven shafts. Aristotle saw art in less of a bad light; though he shared Plato's poor opinion of it, he nevertheless thought that art might serve the purpose of emotional catharsis. The best-known examples are the helicopter, the autogyro and the tiltrotor aircraft (such as the V-22 Osprey). Plato, it may be noted, barred artists from access to his ideal city, in his Republic. Here, the lift is provided by rotating aerofoils or rotors. For Plato, art is a pursuit whose adherents are not to be trusted; given that their productions imitate the sensory world (itself an imitation of the divine world of forms) art necessarily is an imitation of an imitation, and thus is hopelessly far from the source of the truth. A second category of aerodynamically lifted aircraft are the rotary-wing aircraft. In Danto's view, it can be defined as a character of the item itself or as a function of an object's context.

So far the only significant practical application of the lifting body is in the Space Shuttle, but many aircraft generate lift from nothing other than wings alone. Art may be seen as being in the response/emotion of the viewer as Tolstoy claims. The lifting body configuration is where the body itself produce lift. Art may be defined by the intention of the artist as in the writings of Dewey. A variable geometry ('swing-wing') has also been employed in a few examples of combat aircraft (the F-111, Panavia Tornado, F-14 Tomcat and B-1 Lancer, among others). Definitions of art and aesthetic arguments usually proceed from one of several possible perspectives. the B-2 Spirit). It is because of the overbearing need to create, in the face of financial ruin, public obscurity or political opposition, that artists are typically conceived of as unstable, even crazy, or misguided.

Other possibilities include the delta-wing, where lift and horizontal control surfaces are often combined, and the flying wing, where there is no separate vertical control surface (e.g. Though to the artists themselves, the impulse to create is undeniable; an artist can no more deny that impulse than he/she could ignore breathing (one might compare Kandinsky's inner necessity to this popular view). This is principally an improvement in structures and not aerodynamics. The term 'art' offers no true definition besides those based within the cultural, historical and geographical context in which it is applied. Subsequently most aircraft are monoplanes. From one perspective, art is a generic term for any product of the creative impulse, out of which sprang all other human pursuits — such as science via alchemy, and religion via shamanism. The number of lift surfaces varied in the pre-1950 period, as biplanes (two wings) and triplanes (three wings) were numerous in the early days of aviation. This is not to say that technical skill is a necessary prerequisite of art, but rather that a high degree of skill goes some way in conferring a judgement of high standard upon an artist or artwork.

Canards are becoming more common as supersonic aerodynamics grows more mature and because the forward surface contributes lift during straight-and-level flight. Art explores what is commonly termed as the human condition; that is, essentially, what it is to be human, and art of a superior kind often brings about some new insight concerning humanity (not always positive) or demonstrates a level of skill so fine as to push forward the boundaries of collective human ability. The other configuration is the canard where small horizontal control surfaces are placed forward of the wings, near the nose of the aircraft. Artists have to express themselves so that their public is aroused, but they do not have to do so consciously. In a "conventional" configuration, the lift surfaces are placed in front of a control surface or tailplane. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Much aerodynamic work was done with kites until test aircraft, wind tunnels and now computer modelling programs became available. Art appeals to human emotions.

Kites depend upon the tension between the cord which anchors it to the ground and the force of the wind currents. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium in order to strike some universal chord, or by the rarity of the skill of the artist, or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist. The forerunner of these type of aircraft is the kite. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that in the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Among aerodynamically lifted aircraft, most fall in the category of fixed-wing aircraft, where horizontal airfoils produce lift, by profiting from airflow patterns determined by Bernoulli's equation and, to some extent, the Coanda effect. The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of that which is aesthetically appealing. With engine lift, the aircraft defeats gravity by use of vertical Examples of engine lift aircraft are rockets, and VTOL aircraft such as the Hawker-Siddeley Harrier. Thus the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.

In the case of aerodynamic lift, the aircraft is kept in the air by wings or rotors (see aerodynamics). In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic, and art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons; for example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3rd of May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians, yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution, and his fitting social and political outrage. In heavier-than-air aircraft, there are two ways to produce lift: aerodynamic lift and engine lift. However, "good" art is not always, or even regularly, aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. Several accidents, such as the Hindenburg fire at Lakehurst, NJ, in 1937 led to the demise of large rigid airships. Though perception is always colored by experience, and thus a reaction to art on these grounds is necessarily subjective, it is commonly taken that that which is not aesthetically satisfying in some fashion cannot be art. The most successful type of rigid airship was the Zeppelin. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism: at the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art, whether it is perceived to be attractive or repellent.

Examples of lighter-than-air aircraft include non-steerable balloons, such as hot air balloons and gas balloons, and steerable airships (sometimes called dirigible balloons) such as blimps (that have non-rigid construction) and rigid airships that have an internal frame. It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. A first division by design among aircraft is between lighter-than-air, aerostat, and heavier-than-air aircraft, aerodyne. Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception," (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). Below, we describe classifications by design, propulsion and usage. It may be further noted that certain forms of art outside a Western tradition, such as Islamic geometric designs and calligraphy, Buddhist or Hindu mandalas and Celtic knotwork, though they are non-representational, still require a measure of skill and certain creative involvement in their execution. There are several ways to classify aircraft. On the other hand, criticism has often been brought to bear on modern artists for having no creative involvement whatsoever in their creations: one might take Hirst's work again as emblematic of this approach.

Aircraft fall into two broad categories:. It derives from the fact that in Western culture at least, art has traditionally been pushed in the direction of representationalism, the literal presentation of reality through literal images. . The exclusionary view that art requires a certain skill level to produce is often described as a lay critique. An aircraft is any machine capable of atmospheric flight. These approaches are exemplary of a particular kind of contemporary art: conceptual art. The distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an airship has some means of controlling both its forward motion and steering itself, while balloons are carried along with the wind. In the first case, Emin simply slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery; in the second, Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork, and left its eventual creation to employed artisans.

In particular, these aircraft use a relatively low density gas such as helium, hydrogen or heated air, to displace the air around the craft. One might take Emin's My Bed or Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, as examples of pieces wherein the artist exercised little to no traditionally recognised sets of skills. Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same manner as ships float on the water. For example, a common contemporary criticism of some modern painting occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. Lighter than air aerostats: hot air balloons and airships. A common view is that the epithet 'art' (particular in its elevated sense) requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability (such as one might find in many works of the Rennaissance or in the plays of Shakespeare) or an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Mainly used internationally. It can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language so as to convey meaning, with immediacy and or depth.

STOL stands for Short Take Off and Landing. An example of this is the contemporary young master Josignacio, creator of Plastic Paint Medium. The abbreviation VTOL is applied to aircraft other than helicopters that can take off or land vertically. Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Helicopters and autogyros use a spinning rotor (a rotary wing) to provide lift; helicopters also use the rotor to provide thrust. There follow some generally accepted characteristics of art; after this there is some lengthier discussion of several of those facets perceived as universal or central to art:. For a glider to maintain its forward speed it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Individuals use the word art to identify painting, as well as singing.

Exceptions are gliders which have no engines and gain their thrust, initially, from winches or tugs and then from gravity and thermal currents. There is often confusion about the meaning of the term art because multiple meanings of the word are used interchangeably. The movement of air over the airfoil produces lift that causes the aircraft to fly. Artists who create applied arts or crafts are usually referred to as designers, artisans, or craftspeople. Fixed-wing aircraft generally use an internal-combustion engine in the form of a piston engine (with a propeller) or a turbine engine (jet or turboprop), to provide thrust that moves the craft forward through the air. The term applied arts is most often used to describe the design or decoration of functional objects to make them visually pleasing. Heavier than air aerodynes, including autogyros, helicopters and variants, and conventional fixed-wing aircraft: aeroplanes in Commonwealth English (excluding Canada), airplanes in North American English. Architecture typically confounds the distinctions between fine and applied art, since the form involves designing structures that strive to be both attractive and functional.

Other visual arts typically designated as fine arts include printmaking, drawing, photography, film, and video, though the tools used to realize these media are often used to make applied or commercial art as well. In the visual arts, the term fine arts most often refers to painting and sculpture, arts which have little or no practical function and are valued in terms of the visual pleasure they provide or their success in communicating ideas or feelings. Most forms of art fit under two main categories: fine arts and applied arts, though there is no clear dividing line. In addition, a work of art may be representational or abstract.

For instance, a painting may be a still life, a portrait, or a landscape and may deal with historical or domestic subjects. Within each form, a wide range of genres may exist. These include photography, film, video art, installation art, conceptual art, performance art, community arts, land art, fashion, comics, computer art, and, most recently, video games. However, since the advent of modernism and the technological revolution, new forms have emerged.

Artistic expression takes many forms: painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, music, literature, and architecture are the most widely recognised forms. There are a variety of arts, including visual arts and design, decorative arts, plastic arts, and the performing arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymological roots. A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include artifact, artificial, artifice, artillery, medical arts, and military arts.

This is the only near-universal definition of art: that whatever is described as such has undergone a deliberate process of arrangement by an agent. The word art derives from the Latin ars, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft", and derives in turn from an Indo-European root meaning "arrangement" or "to arrange". . Other than originality, there are no widely agreed-upon criteria for what is or isn't considered "art", and there are many divergent definitions of art to seek more specific requirements.

This distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them. art history, art criticism, and art theory) to mediate its boundaries. As a form of cultural expression, art may be defined by the pursuit of diversity and the usage of narratives of liberation and exploration (i.e. In addition to serving as a method of pure creativity and self-expression, the purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically-, religiously-, and philosophically-motivated art, to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics and fine art) or pleasure, or to generate strong emotions; the purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.

As such, the term art may be taken to include forms as diverse as prose writing, poetry, dance, acting, music, sculpture and painting. The creative arts are a collection of disciplines whose principal purpose is in the output of material that is compelled by a personal drive and echoes or reflects a message, mood, and symbolism for the viewer to interpret. By both definitions of the word, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind, from early pre-historic art to contemporary art. However, in the modern use of the word, which rose to prominence during the Renaissance, art is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works (or artwork) which, from concept to creation, adhere to the "creative impulse"—that is, art is distinguished from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any undisciplined pursuit of recreation.

By its original and broadest definition, art (from the Latin ars, meaning "skill" or "craft") is the product or process of the effective application of a body of knowledge and a set of skills; this meaning is preserved in such phrases as "liberal arts" and "martial arts". Latin American art. Visual arts of the United States. Laotian art.

Thai art. Tibetan art. Japanese art. Chinese art.

Buddhist art. Asian art as found in: