Vietnam

See also:. He is the second non-Italian and the first German Pontiff to be elected since Pope Adrian VI (an ethnic German born in future Dutch territory of the Holy Roman Empire, so he was German in terms of his ethnicity and citizenship). Its characteristic flavor is sweet (sugar), spicy (serrano peppers), and flavored by a variety of mints. He was then replaced by the German Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and at the same time, the Dean of the College of Cardinals, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, the future Pope Benedict XVI after more than a quarter of a century in 2005. Vietnamese cuisine is based on rice, soy sauce, and fish sauce. He in turn was succeeded by the non-Italian Pope John Paul II (1978–2005), who was an intellectual heavyweight unprecedented since Pope Pius XII. Southern music exudes a lively laissez faire attitude. (He had worked with Pacelli in the 1930s and 1940s in the curia.) Yet Pope Paul was succeeded (albeit for a short time) by the non-Curialist Pope John Paul I (1978), who it was said was chosen not as an experienced insider nor administrator, but as a "simple, holy man".

Central classical music shows the influences of Champa culture with its melancholic melodies. Montini, Pope Paul VI (1963–1978) like Pius XII, was a curialist. Vietnamese classical music can be traced to the Mongol invasions, when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera troupe. After a short but dramatic pontificate during which he convoked the Second Vatican Council which resulted in wide ranging changes in the church, the surprise John was replaced by the widely expected choice Cardinal Giovanni Montini, who many believed would have been elected in 1958, had he been a cardinal then. Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest and is traditionally more formal. John proved to be a radical break with the two previous popes, and indeed with most of the popes of the 20th century. Vietnam's cuisine and music have three distinct flavors, related to Vietnam's three regions: Bắc or North, Trung or Central, and Nam or South. The contrast between diffident, intellectual and distant Pius XII and the humble, in his own words "ordinary" Good Pope John was dramatic, with none more surprised at the election than Pope John himself, who had his own return rail ticket in his pocket when he was elected.

Others say that the Vietnamese' second religion is superstition and fatalism, brought on by the decades of war. Pius was then replaced by the lower-class, elderly, popular, informal Pope John XXIII (1958–1963). The majority of Vietnamese are adherents to Mahayana Buddhism, influenced by Confucianism and Daoism, and with a strong emphasis on ancestor worship. He was also the ultimate insider; his family were descended from the papal aristocracy, with his brother working as a lawyer for the Holy See. Historically, passing the imperial Mandarin exams was the only means for Vietnamese people to socially advance themselves. Pius XII was seen as one of the great thinkers in the papacy in the 20th century. Education is highly prized. Pius XI was replaced in 1939 by the aristocratic ultra-insider Curialist, Pius XI's Secretary of State Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli, Pope Pius XII (1939–1958).

Due to Vietnam's long association with China, Vietnamese culture remains strongly Confucian with its emphasis on familial duty. Pius's rugged ultraconservatism contrasted with the low-key moderatism of Giacomo Cardinal della Chiesa, Pope Benedict XV (1914–1922), which again contrasted with the former librarian mountain-climber Achille Cardinal Ratti, Pope Pius XI (1922–1939), who led Roman Catholicism with an authoritarianism more akin to Pope Pius X, who also shared his temper. During the French colonial period, Quốc Ngữ, the romanized Vietnamese alphabet representation of spoken Vietnamese, became popular and brought literacy to the masses. He in turn was succeeded by the lower-class, bluntly outspoken Pope Pius X (1903–1914). The celebrated epic Đoạn trường tân thanh (or Truyện Kiều) by Nguyễn Du is written in Chữ Nôm. The controversial one-time populist turned conservative, long-lived Pope Pius IX (1846–1878) was succeeded by the aristocratic diplomatic Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903). In the 16th century, the Vietnamese developed their own set of characters called Chữ Nôm. Past cardinals have often voted for someone radically different to the pope who appointed them.

In its early history, Vietnamese writing used Chinese characters. The newly elected pope often contrasts dramatically with his predecessor, a tendency expressed by the Italian axiom "After a fat pope a lean pope". Main article: Culture of Vietnam. John Paul I did not want the elaborate coronation ceremony for himself, choosing instead to be consecrated in a Papal Inauguration ceremony. See also: List of ethnic groups in Vietnam. Formerly, the Pope would be crowned by the triregnum or Triple Tiara at the Papal Coronation. In recent years, English has become a more popular language to learn and is increasingly used in business, among other things. The new Pope then gives his first apostolic blessing, Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World").

Russian- and to a much lesser extent Czech or Polish- is often known among "baby-boomers" whose families had ties with the Soviet bloc. In 1903 Protodeacon Prospero Cardinal Caterini was physically incapable of completing the announcement, so another made it for him. French, a legacy of colonial rule, is spoken by some (mostly older) Vietnamese as a second language. In such an event the announcement is made by the next senior Deacon, who has thus succeeded as Protodeacon, and not by the new Pope himself. The most spoken languages are: Tày (1.5 million), Mường (1.2 million), Khmer (1.05 million), Cantonese (870,000, this figure also includes speakers of other Chinese dialects), Nung (860,000), HMông (790,000), and Tai Dam (700,000). It has happened in the past that the Cardinal Protodeacon has himself been the person elected Pope. Various other languages are spoken by the several minority groups in Vietnam. Next, the senior Cardinal Deacon (the Cardinal Protodeacon) appears at the main balcony of the basilica's façade to proclaim the new pope with the Latin phrase:.

According to official figures, 86.2% of the population speak Vietnamese as a native tongue. The Pope dresses by himself, selecting among the three sizes of white robes made available, and returns to the conclave, where the Cardinal Camerlengo places the Fisherman's Ring on his finger and each cardinal pays homage to the new Pope, who sits on a footstool near the altar. The figure was down to 86.9% at the 1989 census, and 86.2% at the 1999 census. The origin of the name is uncertain, but seems to imply the commixture of joy and sorrow felt by the newly chosen holder of the monumental office. According to official figures, at the 1979 census the ethnic Vietnamese accounted for 87.4% of the total population. Later, the new Pope goes to the "Room of Tears," a small red room next to the Sistine Chapel. As a result, the ethnic minorities are now growing at a faster rate than the ethnic Vietnamese, which means that the percentage of ethnic Vietnamese in the total population is slowly decreasing year after year. After the papal name is chosen, the officials are readmitted to the conclave, and the Master of Pontifical Liturgical writes a document recording the acceptance and the new name of the Pope.

The birth rate of the minorities is still very high, comparable to birth rates in Cambodia or Laos. In most cases, even if such considerations are absent, Popes tend to choose new papal names; the last Pope to reign under his baptismal name was Pope Marcellus II (1555). The birth rate of the ethnic Vietnamese (and also the Hoa), which historically has been very high, decreased significantly since the 1980s and is now reaching much lower levels, comparable to the birth rates in Thailand or Malaysia. Pope John II was the first to adopt a new papal name; he felt that his original name, Mercurius, was inappropriate, as it was also the name of a Roman god. In terms of land area, the ethnic Vietnamese inhabit a little less than half of Vietnam, while the ethnic minorities inhabit the majority of Vietnam's land (albeit the least fertile parts of the country). Since 533, the new Pope has also decided on the name by which he is to be called at this time. According to the 1999 census, ethnic Vietnamese (Kinh) numbered 65,795,718 and thus accounted for 86.2% of the total population of Vietnam. Only after becoming a bishop does the Pope-elect take office.

Protests and demonstrations by highland minorities have been reported. If a priest is elected, the Cardinal Dean ordains him bishop; if a layman is elected, then the Cardinal Dean first ordains him priest, and only then bishop. Further north, there have been reports of tensions with the Tày people due to the government sponsored relocation of ethnic Vietnamese from the lowlands to the highlands inhabited by the Tày and other minorities. If he is not a bishop, however, he must be first ordained as one before he can assume office. On the other hand, some in the Vietnamese government still pursue the centuries old policy of colonizing Khmer land, and it was reported that in the 1980s and 1990s some local Vietnamese officials have pushed the Cambodian-Vietnamese border several kilometers inside Cambodian territory, annexing tens of Cambodian villages, in violation of international treaties, thus further increasing the ethnic Khmer population inside Vietnam. If he does, and is already a bishop, he immediately takes office. The Vietnamese government is afraid that the large native Khmer Krom population in the Mekong delta could allow Cambodia to officially claim back the fertile areas of the delta that were annexed by Vietnam more than 200 years ago. The Cardinal Dean then asks the Pope-elect if he assents to the election ("Do you accept your canonical election as Supreme Pontiff?").

In particular, the large Khơ-me Crôm (Khmer Krom) minority of southern Vietnam is denied elementary human rights in an effort by the Vietnamese government to Vietnamize the Khmer Krom, or force them to leave their native land and relocate to Cambodia. Once the election concludes, the junior Cardinal Deacon summons the Secretary of the College of Cardinals and the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations into the hall. Human Rights NGOs point out the Vietnamese government's poor record with respect to ethnic minorities. Originally, damp straw was added to the fire to create dark smoke; since 1958 chemicals have been used, and since 2005 bells ring after a successful election in case the white smoke is not unambiguously white. Sometimes, the name Montagnard is used specifically for the Mường ethnic group. Dark smoke signals that the ballot did not result in an election, while white smoke signals that a new Pope was chosen. The name Montagnard is still sometimes used today. The colour of the smoke signals the results to the people assembled in St Peter's Square.

The French used the name Montagnard (plural Montagnards, meaning "mountain people") to call all the minorities (except the Khmer Krom and the Hoa), no matter what their actual language. If the first election held in any given morning or afternoon does not result in an election, the cardinals proceed to the next vote immediately; the papers from both ballots are burnt together at the end of the second vote. Officially, the ethnic minorities are referred to as "national minorities". The ballots are then all burnt by the Scrutineers with the assistance of the Secretary of the College and the Masters of Ceremonies. Mixed race individuals face the most discrimination in Vietnamese society and government, especially ones who are product of American soldiers (white or black) from the Vietnam War. The Scrutineers add up all of the votes, and the Revisers check the ballots and the names on the Scrutineers' lists to ensure that no error was made. There are some who are racially mixed with blacks as well, another product during the Vietnam War from American soldiers. Once all of the ballots have been opened, the final post-scrutiny phase begins.

There are also a few of those descended from Indian or Pakistani setttlers also during the colonial era. The last of the Scrutineers reads the name aloud. Most of them are descendants of Vietnamese people mixed with either early French settlers or white American soldiers and personnel (or both), during the colonial period and Vietnam War. Each ballot is unfolded by the first Scrutineer; all three Scrutineers separately write down the name indicated on the ballot. Vietnam also has a small number of racial Eurasians, people of Asian and Caucasian (mostly white, but also Indian) parentage. If, however, no irregularities are observed, the ballots may be opened and the votes counted. Many of these 53 minority groups only have a few thousand members or so. If the number of ballots does not correspond to the number of cardinal electors present, the ballots are burnt, unread, and the vote is repeated.

Beyond these five largest ethnic minorities, there are 48 other minorities officially recognized by the Vietnamese government, giving a total of 53 minorities altogether. Once all votes have been cast, the first Scrutineer chosen shakes the container, and the last Scrutineer removes and counts the ballots. However, since the North Vietnamese took over South Vietnam in 1975 many Hoa left Vietnam, especially in the 1980s, so that at the 1999 census the Hoa were only the fifth largest minority (or the fourth largest if the Thái are not considered as an homogenous ethnic group). The oath is taken by all cardinals only at the first vote. Up to the 1979 Vietnamese census, the Hoa were the largest minority of Vietnam. When the Infirmarii return to the Chapel, the ballots are counted to ensure that their number matches with the number of ill cardinals; thereafter, they are deposited in the appropriate receptacle. They speak predominantly Cantonese (known to the Vietnamese as Quảng Đông), but there are also speakers of Hakka (Khách Gia), Min Nan/Hokkien/Fujian (Mân Nam/Phúc Kiến), Chaozhou (Triều Châu), etc. If any cardinal elector is by reason of infirmity confined to his room, the Infirmarii go to their rooms with ballot papers and a box.

The Hoa (ethnic Han Chinese) are mainly lowlanders and, more specifically, urban dwellers. Before casting the ballot, each cardinal elector takes a Latin oath, which translates to: "I call as my witness Christ the Lord who will be my judge, that my vote is given to the one who before God I think should be elected." If any cardinal elector is in the Chapel, but cannot proceed to the altar due to infirmity, the last Scrutineer may go to him and take his ballot after the oath is recited. The Vietnamese government reported 1,055,174 Khmer Krom at the 1999 census. The cardinal electors proceed, in order of precedence, to take their completed ballots (which bear only the name of the individual voted for) to the altar, where the Scrutineers stand. There is no consensus on the exact number of Khơ-me Crôm (Khmer Krom) living in Vietnam. Then the scrutiny phase of the election commences. The Khơ-me Crôm (Khmer Krom) live in the fertile delta of the Mekong River in southern Vietnam and are ethnically the same as the Khmer people who make up the majority of the population of Cambodia. New Scrutineers, Infirmarii and Revisers are not selected again after the first ballot.

The Mường live in the mountains of north central Vietnam and speak a Mon-Khmer language closely related to the Vietnamese language. The junior Cardinal Deacon then draws by lot nine names; the first three become Scrutineers, the second three Infirmarii and the last three Revisers. Although the Thái ethnicity is officially recognized in Vietnam, western linguistics do not recognize it and prefer to classify Tai Dam, Tai Dón, Tai Daeng, etc., as separate ethnic groups, in which case the Mường minority moves to second largest minority of Vietnam, Khmer Krom move to third position, and Hoa to fourth position. As the cardinals begin to write down their votes, the Secretary of the College of Cardinals, the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations and the Masters of Ceremonies exit; the junior Cardinal Deacon then closes the door. The Thai people of Thailand speak languages belonging to the Lao-Phutai branch of the Southwestern Tai subgroup, while the "Thái" of Vietnam speak languages belonging to the East Central branch of the Southwestern Tai subgroup. The process of voting comprises three phases: the "pre-scrutiny," the "scrutiny," and the "post-scrutiny." During the pre-scrutiny, the Masters of the Ceremonies prepare ballot papers bearing the words Eligo in Summum Pontificem ("I elect as Supreme Pontiff") and provide at least two to each cardinal elector. This official "Thái" ethnicity should not be confused with the Thai people of Thailand. However, there can be no waiving of the requirement that a valid election takes place only by an absolute majority of the votes.

All these languages are closely related and belong to the Southwestern Tai subgroup of the Tai languages. This includes the possibility of eliminating all candidates except the two who have received the greatest number of votes in the previous ballot and reducing the majority require for an election. Thái is a name used by Vietnamese authorities for a group of people also from the mountainous northern region of Vietnam and whom western linguists say actually speak separate languages: Tai Dam, Tai Dón, Tai Daeng, Tai Hang Tong, Tày Tac, and Tai Thanh. After a further seven ballots, the cardinal electors may decide by an absolute majority, to advise and change the election rules. Their language is a member of the Tai languages, belonging to the Central Tai subgroup and closely related to the Zhuang language of southern China. If, after another seven ballots, no result is achieved, voting is suspended once more, the address being delivered by the senior Cardinal Bishop. The Tay people live primarily in the mountains and foothills of northern Vietnam. After seven further ballots, the process may again be similarly suspended, with the address now being delivered by the senior Cardinal Priest.

Membership to Sunni and Bashi Islam are usually accredited to the ethnic Cham minority, but there are also a few ethnic Vietnamese adherents to Islam in the southwest. If no result is obtained after three vote days of balloting, the process is suspended for a maximum of one day for prayer and an address by the senior Cardinal Deacon. The largest Protestant churches are the Evangelical Church of Vietnam and the Montagnard Evangelical Church. If a ballot take place on the afternoon of the first day and no-one is elected, or no ballot had taken place, four ballots are held on each successive day: two in each morning and two in each afternoon. Mainstream Pure Land schools and Zen-inspired syncretists); with a sizeable Roman Catholic following, Protestant, Cao Đài, and Hoa Hao minorities. On the afternoon of the first day, one ballot may be held. But according to the majority of other sources, Vietnamese people are predominantly Confucian and Mahayana Buddhist (esp. Universi Dominici Gregis specifically prohibits media such as newspapers, the radio, and television.

According to the 1999 Socialist Republic of Vietnam's census numbers, eighty percent of Vietnamese subscribe to no religion. Cardinal electors may not correspond or converse with anyone outside the conclave, by post, radio, telephone or otherwise. By contrast, the ethnic minorities, except for the Khơ-me Crôm (Khmer Krom) and the Hoa (ethnic Han Chinese), are found mostly in the highlands that cover two-thirds of the national territory. Secrecy is maintained during the conclave; the cardinals as well as the conclavists and staff are not permitted to disclose any information relating to the election. A homogenous social group, the Viet exert influence on national life through their control of political and economic affairs and their role as purveyors of the dominant culture. Finally, a strictly limited number of servant staff are permitted for housekeeping and the preparing and serving of meals³. They are concentrated largely in the alluvial deltas and in the coastal plains and have little in common with the minority peoples of the highlands, whom they have historically regarded as hostile and barbaric. Priests are available to hear the confession in different languages; two doctors are also admitted.

The majority ethnic Vietnamese, also called Viet or Kinh, make up about 86 percent of the nation's population. The Secretary of the College of Cardinals, the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations, two Masters of Ceremonies, two officers of the Papal Sacristy and an ecclesiastic assisting the Dean of the College of Cardinals are also admitted to the conclave. According to official figures from the 1999 census, of Vietnam's then population of 76.3m, the largest of 54 government recognized ethnic groups of Vietnam were:. Each cardinal elector may be accompanied by two attendants or conclavists (three if the cardinal elector is ill). Main article: Demographics of Vietnam. An ill cardinal may leave the conclave and later be readmitted; a cardinal who leaves for any reason other than illness may not return to the conclave. Many of the over 3 million annual visitors are Vietnam war veterans. Cardinals who arrive after the conclave has begun are admitted nevertheless.

Tourism has become an increasingly important industry in Vietnam. After the clarification of the doubts, the election may commence. Corruption, bribery and embezzlement committed by many government officials have pushed property prices even higher, as real estate investment is a popular form of money laundering. Following the recitation of prayers, the Cardinal Dean asks if any doubts relating to procedure remain. The booming prices have given the poor land owners the opportunity to sell their homes for inflated prices. After the speech concludes, the ecclesiastic leaves. This has amazed many people because GDP per capita of this city is around US$1,000 per annum. The ecclesiastic makes a speech concerning the problems facing the Church and on the qualities the new Pope needs to have.

In Hanoi, the capital, property prices can be as high as those in Tokyo or New York City. The Master himself may remain, as may one ecclesiastic designated by the Congregations prior to the commencement of the election. The reason lies in the high property prices. After all the cardinals present have taken the oath, the Master of the Papal Liturgical Celebrations orders all individuals other than the cardinals and conclave participants to leave the Chapel. The spending power of the public has noticeably increased. The Cardinal Dean reads the oath aloud in full; in order of precedence, the other cardinal electors merely state, while touching the Gospels, that they "do so promise, pledge and swear.". This figure has been scaled down by the Government to 9.5% per annum to avoid the ‘double digit’ classification. The Cardinals then take an oath to observe the procedures set down by the apostolic constitutions; to, if elected, defend the liberty of the Holy See; to maintain secrecy; and to disregard the instructions of secular authorities on voting.

Inflation rate is estimated at 14% per year in 2004. Then, they gather in the afternoon in the Pauline Chapel of the Palace of the Vatican, proceeding to the Sistine Chapel while singing the Veni Creator. This translates to US$2700 per capita. On the morning of the day designated by the Congregations of Cardinals, the cardinal electors assemble in St Peter's Basilica to celebrate the Eucharist. Vietnam, however, is still a relatively poor country with GDP of US$227.2 billion (est., 2004). A vacancy in the papal office may also result from a papal abdication, though no pope has abdicated since Celestine V in 1294 and Gregory XII in 1409. The country is attempting to become a member of the WTO. The conclave normally takes place fifteen days after the death of the Pope, but the Congregations may extend the period to a maximum of twenty days in order to permit other cardinals to arrive in the Vatican City.

Layoffs in the state sector and foreign-invested enterprises combined with the lasting effects of a previous military demobilization further exacerbated the unemployment situation. The Congregations also fix the date and time of the commencement of the conclave. On the other hand, urban unemployment has been rising steadily in recent years due to high numbers of migration from the countryside to the cities, and rural unemployment, estimated to be up to 35% during nonharvest periods, is already at critical levels. The Congregations must make certain arrangements in respect of the Pope's burial, which by tradition takes place from four to six days of the Pope's death, leaving time for pilgrims to see the dead pontiff, and is to be followed by a nine-day period of mourning (this is known as the novemdiales, Latin for "nine days"). Simultaneously, investment grew three-fold and domestic savings quintupled. The Cardinal Camerlengo and Cardinal Assistants are responsible, among other things, for maintaining the election's secrecy. On the one hand, Vietnam achieved around 8% annual GDP growth from 1990 to 1997 and continued at around 7% from 2000 to 2002, making it the world's second-fastest growing economy. Every three days, new Cardinal Assistants are chosen by lot.

In many ways, this followed the Chinese model and achieved similar results. The Particular Congregation, which deals with the day-to-day matters of the Church, includes the Cardinal Camerlengo and the three Cardinal Assistants—one Cardinal Bishop, one Cardinal Priest and one Cardinal Deacon—chosen by lot. In 1986, the Sixth Party Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam formally abandoned Marxist economic planning and began introducing market elements as part of a broad economic reform package called "đổi mới" ("Renovation"). All cardinals are obliged to attend the General Congregation of Cardinals, except those whose health does not permit, or who are over eighty (but those cardinals may choose to attend if they please). Main article: Economy of Vietnam. During the sede vacante, as the papal vacancy is known, certain limited powers pass to the College of Cardinals, which is convoked by the Dean of the College of Cardinals. Land boundaries: Total: 4,639 km (2,883 mi) Border countries: Cambodia 1,228 km (763 mi), China 1,281 km (796 mi), Laos 2,130 m (1,324 mi). The tradition originated to avoid forgery of documents, but today merely is a symbol of the end of the pope's reign.

Annual rainfall ranges from 120 to 300 centimetres (47 to 118 inches), and annual temperatures vary between 5°C (41°F) and 37°C (99°F). The Cardinal Camerlengo takes possession of the Fisherman's Ring worn by the Pope; the Ring, along with the papal seal, is later destroyed before the College of Cardinals. The climate is tropical and monsoonal; humidity averages 84 percent throughout the year. During the twentieth century the use of the hammer in this ritual has been abandoned; under Universi Dominici Gregis, the Camerlengo must merely declare the Pope's death by calling him three times by his Christian name in the presence of the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations, and of the Cleric Prelates, Secretary and Chancellor of the Apostolic Camera. The south is divided into coastal lowlands, Dai Truong Son (central mountains) with high plateaus, and the Mekong River Delta. The death of the Pope is verified by the Cardinal Camerlengo, or Chamberlain, who traditionally performed the task by gently striking the Pope's head with a small silver hammer and calling out his Christian (not papal) name three times. Phan Xi Păng, located in Lào Cai province, is the highest mountain in Vietnam at 3,143 metres (10,312 ft). A Cardinal who is considered to be a prospect for the papacy is referred to informally as being papabile (plural noun: papabili), the term being coined by Vatican watchers in the mid-twentieth century.

The northern part of the country consists of highlands and the Red River Delta. Speculation tends to mount when a Pope is ill or aged and shortlists of potential candidates appear in the media. Mountains account for 40 percent, hills 40 percent, and forests 75 percent. However, there is inevitably always much speculation about which Cardinals have serious prospects of being elected. The topography consists of hills and densely forested mountains, with level land covering no more than 20 percent. It is considered poor form to campaign for the position of Pope. The country is approximately 331,688 square kilometers (128,066 mi²) in area, which is slightly larger than New Mexico and slightly smaller than Germany. Upon the Pope's death, either body's proceedings are suspended, to be resumed only upon the order of the new Pope.

Main article: Geography of Vietnam. Universi Dominici Gregis explicitly provides that even if a Synod or ecumenical council is in session at the time of a Pope's death, it may not perform the election. Besides the five cities, the country is divided into fifty-nine provinces (tỉnh, singular and plural): An Giang, Bắc Giang, Bắc Cạn, Bạc Liêu, Bắc Ninh, Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu, Bến Tre, Bình Định, Bình Dương, Bình Phước, Bình Thuận, Cà Mau, Cao Bằng, Đắk Lắk, Đắk Nông, Điện Biên, Đồng Nai, Đồng Tháp, Gia Lai, Hà Giang, Hải Dương, Hà Nam, Hà Tây, Hà Tĩnh, Hòa Bình, Hậu Giang, Hưng Yên, Khánh Hòa, Kiên Giang, Kon Tum, Lai Châu, Lâm Đồng, Lạng Sơn, Lào Cai, Long An, Nam Định, Nghệ An, Ninh Bình, Ninh Thuận, Phú Thọ, Phú Yên, Quảng Bình, Quảng Nam, Quảng Ngãi, Quảng Ninh, Quảng Trị, Sóc Trăng, Sơn La, Tây Ninh, Thái Bình, Thái Nguyên, Thanh Hóa, Thừa Thiên-Huế, Tiền Giang, Trà Vinh, Tuyên Quang, Vĩnh Long, Vĩnh Phúc, Yên Bái. Under present procedure, however, the Synod may only meet while called by the Pope. Now, Saigon is understood as heart of the city (central area of the District 1). Proposed reforms include a plan to replace the College of Cardinals as the electoral body with the Synod of Bishops, which includes many more members. Ho Chi Minh City was formerly known as Sài Gòn (Sài Gòn). Since the College of Cardinals is a small body, some have suggested that the electorate should be expanded.

There are also four municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc Trung ương, singular and plural) existing at provincial level: Cần Thơ, Đà Nẵng, Hải Phòng, and Hồ Chí Minh City (Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh). If the Sub-Dean also cannot participate, the senior Cardinal Bishop participating performs the functions. Vietnam's capital (thủ đô, singular and plural) is Hà Nội (Hà Nội). If the Dean is not entitled to participate in the conclave due to age, his place is taken by the Sub-Dean, who is also always a Cardinal Bishop. Main article: Provinces of Vietnam. Several duties are performed by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, who is always a Cardinal Bishop. Vietnam is a member of the United Nations, La Francophonie, ASEAN, and APEC, and applied for membership to the World Trade Organization in 2001. Under Universi Dominici Gregis, the cardinals are to be lodged in a purpose-built edifice, the Domus Sanctæ Marthæ, but are to continue to vote in the Sistine Chapel.

Former political parties include the nationalist Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng of Nguyễn Thái Học, the Can Lao party of the Ngô Đình Diệm government and the Viet Nam Duy Tan Hoi of Phan Bội Châu during the colonial period. Universi Dominici Gregis is the sole constitution governing the election; it abrogates all constitutions previously issued by Popes. The Government of Free Vietnam has claimed responsibility for a number of guerilla raids into Vietnam, which the Vietnamese government has denounced as terrorism. The procedures outlined, however, in many cases date to much earlier times. The most prominent are the Vietnamese Constitutional Monarchist League, and the Government of Free Vietnam. In 1996, John Paul II promulgated a new Apostolic Constitution, called Universi Dominici Gregis (Shepherd of the Lord's Whole Flock), which, unless superseded by later regulations, now governs the election of the Pope's successor. These communities have supported demonstrations and civil disobedience against the government. Popes have often written "election constitutions" fine-tuning the rules for the election of their successors: Pope Pius XII's Vacantis Apostolicae Sedis of 1945 governed the conclave of 1958, Pope John XXIII's Summi Pontificis Electio of 1962 that of 1963, and Pope Paul VI's Romano Pontifici Eligendo of 1975 those of 1978.

There are no legal opposition parties in Vietnam, although a number of opposition groups do exist scattered overseas among exile communities within countries such as France and the United States. Since 1846, when the Quirinal Palace was used, the Sistine Chapel has always served as the location of the election. Senior Politburo members (Trần Đức Lương, Phan Văn Khải, Nguyễn Văn An, Nguyễn Tấn Dũng, Lê Hồng Anh, Phạm Văn Trà and Trương Quang Được) concurrently hold high positions in the Government and the National Assembly. Within Rome and the Vatican City, different locations have been used for the election. From 2001 until now, Nong Duc Manh has been General Secretary of CPV. Since the Western Schism, however, elections have always been held in Rome (except in 1800, when Neapolitan troops occupying Rome forced the election to be held in Venice), and normally in the Vatican City (which has, since the Lateran treaties of 1929, been recognised as an independent state). The Socialist Republic of Vietnam exists today as a communist state. The location of the conclaves was not fixed until the fourteenth century.

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is governed through a highly centralized system dominated by the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) (Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam), which was formerly the Vietnamese Labor Party (1951-1976). Several reforms were instituted by John Paul II in 1996. Main article: Politics of Vietnam. In 1904, Pius X issued a constitution consolidating almost all of the previous ones, making some changes. It reestablished diplomatic relations with the United States in 1995, one year after the United States' trade embargo on Vietnam was repealed. Gregory XV issued two bulls that covered the most minute of details relating to the election; the first, issued in 1621, concerned electoral processes, while the other bull, issued in 1622, fixed the ceremonies to be observed. During much of the 1990s, economic growth was rapid, and Vietnam reintegrated into the international community. In 1562, Pius IV issued a papal bull that introduced regulations relating to the secrecy of the ballots and other procedural matters.

In 1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam implemented economic reforms known as đổi mới (renovation). Gregory X's strict regulations were later abrogated in 1276 by Adrian V, but after he was elected in 1294 following a two-year vacancy, Celestine V restored them. Only one month later, however, partially in retaliation, China launched a short-lived incursion into Vietnam: the Sino-Vietnamese War. During the conclave, no cardinal was to receive any ecclesiastical revenue. In late 1978, the Cambodian people, with the support of the Vietnamese army, removed the Khmer Rouge from power. Food was to be supplied through a window; after three days of the meeting, the cardinals were to receive only one dish a day; after five days, they were to receive just bread and water. Millions of South Vietnamese became boat people over the next two decades. No cardinal was allowed to be attended by more than one servant unless ill.

After reunification, political and economic conditions deteriorated to near-famine conditions. Cardinals were to be secluded in a closed area; they were not even accorded separate rooms. By April 30, 1975, North Vietnam had overtaken South Vietnam and by 1976, Vietnam was officially unified under the North Vietnamese government as The Socialist Republic of Vietnam. To reduce further delays, Gregory X introduced stringent rules relating to the election procedures. All American troops were withdrawn by March 29, 1973. As a result, the cardinals soon elected Gregory X, ending an interregnum of almost three years. The war continued even after the Paris Peace Accords on January 27, 1973, which formally recognized the sovereignty of both sides. When the cardinals still failed to elect a Pope, the city refused to send in any materials except bread and water.

The conflict quickly escalated into the Vietnam War. After the death of Clement IV in 1268, the city of Viterbo was also forced to resort to the seclusion of cardinals in the episcopal palace. During the Cold War, the North was supported by China and the Soviet Union while the South was supported by United States. The method was adopted, for example, in 1216 by the city of Perugia and in 1241 by the city of Rome. The Geneva Accords subsequently divided the country into North Vietnam and South Vietnam, separated by a demilitarized zone. To resolve them, authorities often resorted to the forced seclusion of the cardinal electors. When the war ended, France attempted to re-establish control but failed, after they were defeated at Dien Bien Phu. In earlier years, papal elections sometimes suffered prolonged deadlocks.

French rule continued until World War II, when Japan briefly occupied Vietnam and used the country as a base to launch attacks against the rest of Indochina and India. He declared that any cardinal who communicated his government's veto would suffer excommunication, or expulsion from Church communal life. The independent period ended in the mid-19^th century, when the country was colonized by France. Cardinal Sarto, who chose the name Pius X, abolished the right of the veto. They eventually conquered the kingdom of Champa and much of the Khmer empire. Consequently, the College chose Giuseppe Cardinal Sarto with 55 votes. Between the 13th and 17th centuries, the Vietnamese expanded southward in a process known as nam tiến (southward expansion). Austria became the last nation to exercise the power in 1903, when Cardinal Puzyna de Kosielsko informed the College of Cardinals that Austria opposed the election of Mariano Cardinal Rampolla (who had received 29 out of 60 votes in one ballot).

Feudalism in Vietnam reached its zenith in the Le Dynasty 1400s, especially with the emperor Le Thanh Tong. After the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, its place was taken by Austria (which was a part of the Empire and whose ruler was also Holy Roman Emperor). However, during the rule of the Tran Dynasty, it defeated three Mongol attempts of invasion by the Yuan Dynasty. No vetoes could be employed after an election. For most of its history, Vietnam has been strongly influenced by its much bigger northern neighbor, China. Therefore, the nation's cardinals did not announce the use of the power until the very last moment when the candidate in question seemed likely to get elected. They gained complete autonomy a century later. The power of exclusion was, by the same custom, only exercisable by any nation once.

In 939, the Vietnamese defeated Chinese forces at the Bach Dang River and gained independence. By an informal convention, each nation was allowed to veto not more than one papal candidate; any decision made by a nation was conveyed by one of its cardinals. Sporadic independence movements were attempted, but were quickly extinguished by the Chinese army. From the sixteenth century, certain Catholic nations were allowed to exercise the so-called "right of exclusion" or "veto". What is known for sure is that for most of the period from 207 BC to the early 10^th century, it was under the rule of successive dynasties of China. In 1119, the Holy Roman Empire acceded to the Concordat of Worms, accepting the papal decision. Whether this is indeed historically true or not is still subject to debate. Gregory VII was the last to submit to the interference of the Holy Roman Emperors; the breach between him and the Holy Roman Empire caused by the Investiture Controversy led to the abolition of the Emperor's role.

This Chinese general adopted the native language (which sounded similar to southern Chinese dialects anyway) and married local women, who gave birth to sons that inherited the kingdom. In 1059, the same papal bull that restricted suffrage to the cardinals also recognised the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor, at the time Henry IV, but only as a "concession" made by the Pope, thus establishing that the Holy Roman Emperor had no authority to intervene in elections except where permitted to do so by papal agreements. He and his soldiers conquered the land and established a civilized society modeled after ancient Chinese customs. In 898, riots forced John IX to recognise the superintendence of the Holy Roman Emperor; the local secular rulers in Rome also continued to exert a great influence, especially during the tenth century period known as the pornocracy. Some historians, both in Asia and in the West, hold that the various peoples of today's Vietnam were brought together by a Qin Dynasty-era general who was fed up with the despotic rule of the Qin Shi Huang (First emperor of China proper) and escaped to the "southern Yue [Viet] mountains" to set up his own kingdom. While the first two Holy Roman Emperors, Charlemagne and Louis, did not interfere with the Church, Lothar claimed that an election could not be conducted except in the presence of imperial ambassadors. Chinese historical records tell of an indigenous people that existed about 2,500 years ago. In the 9th century, a new empire—the Holy Roman Empire, which was German, not Italian—came to exert control over the elections of Popes.

Vietnamese legends hold that native people populated and civilized the land more than 4,000 years ago. Thereafter, the Emperor was only required to be notified; the requirement was dispensed with by Zacharias and by his successors. Its cognate name in Chinese, Yuè Nán (越南; Yut⁶ Naam⁴ in Cantonese) means "southern extension". Lengthy delays were caused by the sojourns to and from Constantinople; when Benedict II complained about them, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV acquiesced, ending the confirmation of elections by the Emperors. The name of the country comes from the Vietnamese Việt Nam, which is in turn a reordering of Nam Việt, the name of an ancient kingdom from the ancestral Vietnamese that covered much of today's northern Vietnam. Once the electors arrived at a choice, they were required to send a delegation to Constantinople requesting the Emperor's consent, which was necessary before the individual elected could take office. . A procedure was adopted whereby officials were required to notify the Exarch of Ravenna (who would relay the information to the Byzantine Emperor) upon the death of a Pope before proceeding to the election.

Situated in eastern Indochina, it borders China, Laos, Cambodia, as well as the South China Sea. By the end of the 530s, the Ostrogothic monarchy was overthrown, and power passed to the Byzantine Emperors (who are known as the Eastern Roman Emperors). The Socialist Republic of Vietnam, or Vietnam, is a communist country in Southeast Asia. In 532, John II formally recognised the right of the Ostrogothic monarchs to ratify elections. (Vietnamese, "Independence, liberty, happiness"). After the demise of the Western Roman Empire, clout passed to the Ostrogothic Kings of Italy. Music of Vietnam. He ordered that in future cases, controverted elections would be settled by fresh elections; the method was never applied before its lapse.

Cuisine of Vietnam. In 418, Honorius settled a controverted election, upholding Boniface I over the challenger Eulalius. Hmong: 0.8m (1.0%). For example, the Roman Emperors once held considerable sway in the elections of Popes. Nun: 0.9m (1.1%). For the greater part of its history, the Church has been influenced in the choice of its leaders by powerful monarchs and governments. Hoa: 0.9m (1.1%). New rules introduced by John Paul II have formally abolished these long-unused systems; now, election is always by ballot.

Khmer Krom: 1.1m (1.4%). The last election by compromise was that of John XXII (1316), and the last election by acclamation was that of Gregory XV (1621). Mường: 1.1m (1.5%). When voting by scrutiny, the electors cast secret ballots. Thái: 1.3m (1.7%). When voting by compromise, the deadlocked College of Cardinals would select a committee of cardinals to conduct an election. Tày: 1.5m (1.9%). When voting by acclamation, the cardinals would unanimously declare the new Pope quasi afflati Spiritu Sancto (as if inspired by the Holy Spirit).

Viet/Kinh: 65.8m (86.2%). Electors formerly made choices by three methods: by acclamation, by compromise and by scrutiny. John Paul's constitution allows election by absolute majority if deadlock still prevails seven ballots after the address by the senior Cardinal Bishop. In 1996, John Paul II restored the two-thirds majority requirement, but not the prohibition on cardinals voting for themselves. In 1945, however, Pius XII dispensed with the procedure, compensating for the change by increasing the requisite majority to two-thirds plus one.

Cardinals were not allowed to vote for themselves; an elaborate procedure was adopted to ensure secrecy while at the same time preventing cardinals from voting for themselves². A simple majority sufficed for an election until 1179, when the Third Lateran Council increased the required majority to two-thirds. In the current day, any baptised male, except for a heretic or schismatic can be elected by the College of Cardinals.¹ Women have never been eligible for the papacy; claims that there was a female Pope, including the supposed Pope Joan, are fictitious. Prior to Benedict and John Paul, the last Pope to hail from a nation outside Italy was the Dutchman (ethnically German) Adrian VI, elected in 1522.

There is no requirement that a Bishop of Rome be Italian; the present incumbent, Benedict XVI, is German, and his predecessor, John Paul II, was Polish. In 1378, Urban VI became the last Pope who was not a cardinal at the time of his election. In 1179, the Third Council of the Lateran reversed these requirements, once more allowing laymen to be elected (this does not mean the person elected remains an unordained layman while serving as pope; see acceptance and proclamation below). In 769, the candidate was required to be a clergyman; the requirements later became more stringent, with only cardinals being eligible to be elected.

Originally, lay status did not bar election to the Bishopric of Rome. Of the Church's current 182 cardinals, 116 are under eighty years of age, and thus qualified to vote on a papal successor. John Paul II also changed the rule so that cardinals that were under eighty on the day the Holy See become vacant but turn eighty before the conclave start still have a vote. Even this limitation was disregarded by John Paul II.

In 1970, Paul VI decreed that cardinals over the age of eighty were ineligible to be part of the electorate, and also increased the limit on the number of cardinal electors to 120. Having fallen to as few as seven members in the 13th century, the College grew until in 1587, Sixtus V limited the cardinalate to 70 members (six Cardinal Bishops, 50 Cardinal Priests, and 14 Cardinal Deacons) but Popes since John XXIII have paid no heed to the guideline. Furthermore, it was declared that no council would have authority over the Pope, and that a papal election could not be undone. Since that election, the cardinals have remained the sole electors of Popes.

The Council then proceeded to elect Pope Martin V, ending the Papal Schism. The conflict was only resolved by the Council of Constance (which met between 1414 and 1418), which received the abdication of one claimant and deposed the two others. The Council of Pisa met in 1409 to resolve the conflict, but only managed to elect a third claimant. Later, in the same year, the cardinals moved to Fondi and elected another rival Pope.

After the death of the French-born Pope Gregory XI in that year, Romans rioted to ensure the election of an Italian; the cardinals complied by choosing Pope Urban VI. The cardinals' exclusive right to elect the Pope was questioned during the Papal Schism that began in 1378. A Synod of the Lateran held in 1139 removed the requirement that the assent of the lower clergy and the laity be obtained. The most senior cardinals, the Cardinal Bishops, were to meet first and discuss the candidates before summoning the Cardinal Priests and Cardinal Deacons for the actual vote.

A major change was introduced in 1059, when Nicholas II decreed that the cardinals were to elect a candidate, who would take office after receiving the assent of the clergy and laity. The Lateran Synod held in 769 officially abolished the theoretical suffrage held by the Roman people, though in 862, a Synod of Rome restored it to Roman noblemen. The lack of clarity in the election procedures often resulted in the election of rival Popes or antipopes. The candidate would then be submitted to the people for their approbation; Romans typically signified approval (or disapproval) tumultuously.

The true electoral body was the clergy, which did not cast votes, instead selecting the Pope by general consensus or by acclamation (with bishops supervising the process). Later, however, this method was replaced in Rome and elsewhere with that of election by the clergy and laity of the community and the bishops of neighbouring dioceses. The earliest bishops were most likely chosen by the founders of their communities. Procedures similar to the present system were introduced in 1274 with the Second Council of Lyons.

The procedures relating to the election of the Pope have undergone almost two millennia of development. . Popes may make rules relating to election procedures; they may determine the composition of the electoral body, replacing the entire College of Cardinals if they were to so choose. In earlier times, members of the clergy and the people of Rome were entitled to participate, in much the same way as the laity helped determine the choice of bishops throughout the Catholic Church during this early period.

Since the year 1059, the College of Cardinals has served as the sole body charged with the election of the Pope, the source of the term Prince of the church for cardinals. They are now held in the Sistine Chapel in the Palace of the Vatican. Conclaves have been employed since the Second Council of Lyons decreed in 1274 that the electors should meet in seclusion. The electors form a conclave, from the Latin phrase cum clave ("with a key"), referring to the "locking away" of the electors during the process.

A papal election is the method by which the Roman Catholic Church fills the office of Bishop of Rome, whose incumbent is known as the Pope, the head of the Church.