Tsunami

Source: NOAA National Weather Service Forecast Office. In Islam, the former office of Caliph held similar meaning, as the leader of all Muslims, subordinate only to the prophet Muhammad. Possible Tsunamis. In the Discordian religion, a pope is "every single man, woman, and child on this Earth." (page 00036 of the Principia Discordia). Other tsunamis that have occurred include the following:. In the Russian Orthodox Church it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope". In light of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, UNESCO and other world bodies have called for a global tsunami monitoring system. The heads of the Coptic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria are also called "popes", the former being called "Coptic Pope" or "Pope of Alexandria" and the latter called "Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa"; the parallel construction "Pope of Rome" is frequently used in the Eastern churches.

This is in part due to the absence of major tsunami events between 1883 (the Krakatoa eruption, which killed 36,000 people) and 2004. "The Black Pope" is a derogatory name given to the Superior General of the Society of Jesus due to the Jesuits' practice of wearing black cassocks (compared to the pope's always wearing white robes), and to the order's specific allegiance to the Roman pontiff.
Unlike in the Pacific Ocean, there is no organized alert service covering the Indian Ocean. Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor, fringe causes.
. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church, or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (see Papal Schism).
. An antipope is a person who claims the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it.

The disaster prompted a huge worldwide effort to help victims of the tragedy, with billions of dollars being raised for disaster relief. Some objectors to the papacy occasionally refer to the Catholic Church and its members by the pejorative term papist to point up what they believe to be an inappropriate focus of attention on the office and an improper attribution of certain divine favors ex officio. The tsunami killed people over an area ranging from the immediate vicinity of the quake in Indonesia, Thailand and the north-western coast of Malaysia to thousands of kilometres away in Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and even as far as Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania in eastern Africa. They also argue that not even the worst of the corrupt popes used the office to try to rip the doctrine of the Church from its apostolic roots, and that this is evidence that the office is divinely protected. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which had a magnitude of 9.15, triggered a series of lethal tsunamis on December 26, 2004 that killed approximately 275,000 people (more than 168,000 in Indonesia alone), making it the deadliest tsunami in recorded history. Peter after he denied Jesus). As a result, 202 people on the small island of Okushiri lost their lives, and hundreds more were missing or injured. Defenders of the papacy argue that the Bible shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men (citing examples like some of the kings of Israel, the apostle Judas Iscariot, and even St.

A devastating tsunami occurred off the coast of Hokkaido in Japan as a result of an earthquake on July 12, 1993. An omniscient and omnibenevolent God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the Catholic Church. The total number of victims of this tragedy was 259 dead, 798 wounded and 95 missing presumed dead. Peter, like Alexander VI and Callixtus III from the Borgia family, were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. When the Tumaco Tsunami hit the coast, it caused great destruction in the city of Tumaco, as well as in the small towns of El Charco, San Juan, Mosquera and Salahonda on the Pacific Coast of Colombia. For instance, some argue that claimed successors to St. The earthquake was felt in Bogotá, Cali, Popayán, Buenaventura and several other cities and towns in Colombia and in Guayaquil, Esmeraldas, Quito and other parts of Ecuador. Some objectors to the Papacy use empirical arguments, pointing to the corrupt characters of some of the holders of that office.

The earthquake and the resulting tsunami caused the destruction of at least six fishing villages and the death of hundreds of people in the Colombian province of Nariño. These denominations tend to be more heterogeneous amongst themselves than the aforementioned hierarchical churches, and their views regarding the Papacy and its institutional legitimacy (or lack thereof) vary considerably. A magnitude 7.9 earthquake occurred on December 12, 1979 at 7:59:4.3 (UTC) along the Pacific coast of Colombia and Ecuador. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the pope's authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the pope is the Antichrist or the False Prophet spoken in the Book of Revelation. The tsunamis were up to 6 m tall, and killed 11 people as far away as Crescent City, California. In Western Christianity, these objections — and the vehement rhetoric they have at times been cast in — both contributed to, and are products of, the Protestant Reformation. After the magnitude 9.2 Good Friday Earthquake, tsunamis struck Alaska, British Columbia, California and coastal Pacific Northwest towns, killing 121 people. The Papacy's complex relationship with the Roman and Byzantine Empires, and other secular states, and the Papacy's territorial claims in Italy, are another focal point of these objections; as is the monarchical character of the office of pope.

Nearly 2,000 people were killed. Other non-Catholic Christian denominations do not accept the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, or do not understand it in hierarchical terms, and therefore do not accept the claim that the pope is heir either to Petrine primacy of honour or to Petrine primacy of jurisdiction or they reject both claims of honor or jurisdiction, as well as claims of Papal Infallibility, as unscriptural. A tsunami was triggered which swept over the top of the dam (without bursting it) and into the valley below. Several of these communities refer to such claims as "Ultramontanism.". The reservoir behind the Vajont Dam in northern Italy was struck by an enormous landslide. Because none of them recognise the First Vatican Council as truly ecumenical, they regard its definitions concerning jurisdiction and Infallibility (and anathematisation of those who do not accept them) as invalid. The number of people killed by the earthquake and subsequent tsunami is estimated to be between 490 and 2,290. In any event, these churches see no foundation at all to papal claims of universal immediate jurisdiction, nor to claims of Papal Infallibility.

When the tsunami hit Onagawa, Japan, almost 22 hours after the quake, the wave height was 3 m above high tide. The primacy is therefore regarded primarily as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the Roman Empire, a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon. 61 lives were lost allegedly due to people's failure to heed warning sirens. Peter was ever bishop of Rome at all. The highest wave at Hilo Bay was measured at around 10.7m (35 ft.). Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop, or raise questions about whether St. The first tsunami arrived at Hilo, Hawaii approximately 14.8 hrs after it originated off the coast of South Central Chile. However, these churches generally reject that the Pope is the successor to St.

It spread across the entire Pacific Ocean, with waves measuring up to 25 metres high. Some non-Roman-Catholic Christian communities, such as the Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Old Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Independent Catholic Churches, and even some Lutherans, accept the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, and therefore accept (to varying extents) the papal claims to a primacy of honour. Its epicenter off the coast of South Central Chile, generated one of the most destructive tsunamis of the 20th century. However, the pope's authority is not undisputed outside the Roman Catholic Church; these objections differ from denomination to denomination, but can roughly be outlined as (1.) objections to the extent of the primacy of the pope; and (2.) objections to the institution of the Papacy itself. The Great Chilean Earthquake, at magnitude 9.5 the strongest earthquake ever recorded. The pope's position as Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is dogmatic and therefore not open to debate or dispute within the Roman Catholic Church; the First Vatican Council anathematised all who dispute the pope's primacy of honour and of jurisdiction (it is lawful to discuss the precise nature of that primacy, provided that such discussion does not violate the terms of the Council's Dogmatic Constitution). Note: The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center was established to track these killer waves and provide warning. From this term is derived the name Sedevacantist, which designates a category of dissident, schismatic Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected pope, and that there is therefore a Sede Vacante; one of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the Second Vatican Council and especially the replacement of the Tridentine Mass with the Novus Ordo Missae are heretical, and that, per the dogma of Papal infallibility (see above), it is impossible for a valid pope to have done these things.

The tsunami is locally known in Hawaii as the April Fools Day Tsunami in Hawaii due to people thinking the warnings were an April Fools prank. The Latin term sede vacante ("vacant seat") refers to a papal interregnum, the period between the death of the pope and the election of his successor. The Aleutian Island earthquake tsunami that killed 165 people on Hawaii and Alaska resulted in the creation of a tsunami warning system, established in 1949 for Pacific Ocean area countries. Traditionally, the new pope takes the Papal oath (the so-called "Oath against modernism") at his coronation, but Popes John Paul I, John Paul II, and Benedict XVI have all refused to do so. The resulting tsunami measured over 7 metres in height and took about 2½ hours to reach the Burin Peninsula on the south coast of Newfoundland, where 28 people lost their lives in various communities. Another famed part of the coronation was the lighting of a torch which would flare brightly and promptly extinguish, with the admonition Sic transit gloria mundi ("Thus fades worldly glory"). The quake was felt throughout the Atlantic Provinces of Canada and as far west as Ottawa, Ontario and as far south as Claymont, Delaware. There the pope was crowned with the triregnum and he gave his first blessing as pope, the famous Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World").

On November 18, 1929, an earthquake of magnitude 7.2 occurred beneath the Laurentian Slope on the Grand Banks. Peter's Basilica, with the newly-elected pope borne in the sedia gestatoria. On the facing coasts of Java and Sumatra the sea flood went many miles inland and caused such vast loss of life that one area was never resettled but went back to the jungle and is now the Ujung Kulon nature reserve. Until 1978, the pope's election was followed in a few days by a procession in great pomp and circumstance from the Sistine Chapel to St. Tsunami waves were observed throughout the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the American West Coast, South America, and even as far away as the English Channel. He then announces the new pope's Christian name along with the new name he has adopted as his regnal name. A series of large tsunami waves was generated from the explosion, some reaching a height of over 40 metres above sea level. Peter's Square the following proclamation: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam! ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!").

The island volcano of Krakatoa in Indonesia exploded with devastating fury in 1883, blowing its underground magma chamber partly empty so that much overlying land and seabed collapsed into it. The senior Cardinal Deacon then announces from a balcony over St. The philosophical concept of the sublime, as described by philosopher Immanuel Kant in the Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime, took inspiration in part from attempts to comprehend the enormity of the Lisbon quake and tsunami. The pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the Cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" ("adoratio"), and to receive his blessing. Philosophers of the Enlightenment, notably Voltaire, wrote about the event. Donning the appropriate vestments and re-emerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "Fisherman's Ring" by the Cardinal Camerlengo, whom he either reconfirms or reappoints. Europeans of the 18th century struggled to understand the disaster within religious and rational belief systems. The new pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white Papal vestments ("immantatio") await: small, medium, and large.

Historical records of explorations by Vasco da Gama and other early navigators were lost, and countless buildings were destroyed (including most examples of Portugal's Manueline architecture). The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the regnal name he has chosen for himself. The earthquake, tsunami, and subsequent fires killed more than a third of Lisbon's pre-quake population of 275,000. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word "Accepto," his reign as pope begins at that instant, not at the coronation ceremony several days afterward. Before the great wall of water hit the harbour, waters retreated, revealing lost cargo and forgotten shipwrecks. The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the successfully elected Cardinal two solemn questions. Many townspeople fled to the waterfront, believing the area safe from fires and from falling debris from aftershocks. At the end of the conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI, church bells were also rung to signal that a new pope had been chosen.

Tens of thousands of Portuguese who survived the great 1755 Lisbon earthquake were killed by a tsunami which followed a half hour later. (Traditionally wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (fumata bianca) through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. January 26 - The Cascadia Earthquake, one of the largest earthquakes on record, ruptures the Cascadia Subduction Zone offshore from Vancouver Island to northern California, creating a tsunami logged in Japan and oral traditions of the American First Nations. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or fumata nera. In 2002 it was suggested that the Bristol Channel floods of 1607 in England and Wales, UK, may have been caused by a tsunami. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special oven erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from St Peter's Square. Santorini is regarded as the most likely source for Plato's literary parable of Atlantis. One of the most famous aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world.

At some time between 1650 BC and 1600 BC (still debated), the volcanic Greek island Santorini erupted, causing a 100 m to 150 m high tsunami that devastated the north coast of Crete, 70 km (45 miles) away, and would certainly have wiped out the Minoan civilization along Crete's northern shore. Balloting continues until a pope is elected by a two-thirds majority (since the promulgation of Universi Dominici Gregis the rules allow for a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days). In the North Atlantic Ocean (Norwegian Sea), the Storegga Slides were a major series of sudden underwater land movements over the course of tens of thousands of years, which caused tsunamis and megatsunamis across a wide area. Assuming the number of ballots matches the number of electors, each ballot is then read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Very small tsunamis, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment, occur frequently as a result of minor earthquakes and other events. Before being read, the number of ballots are counted while still folded; if the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Tsunamis occur most frequently in the Pacific Ocean, but are a global phenomenon; they are possible wherever large bodies of water are found, including inland lakes, where they can be caused by landslides. The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for any elector to insert multiple ballots.

See also List of historic tsunamis by death toll.. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar. While it would take some years for the trees to grow to a useful size, such plantations could offer a much cheaper and longer-lasting means of tsunami mitigation than the costly and environmentally destructive method of erecting artificial barriers. Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. [5] Environmentalists have suggested tree planting along stretches of sea coast which are prone to tsunami risks. The election of the pope almost always takes place in the Sistine Chapel, in a meeting called a "conclave" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, cum clavi, until they elect a new pope). In one striking example, the village of Naluvedapathy in India's Tamil Nadu region suffered minimal damage and few deaths as the wave broke up on a forest of 80,244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002 in a bid to enter the Guinness Book of Records. Pope John Paul II abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all popes will be elected by full vote of the Sacred College of Cardinals by ballot.

Some locations in the path of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami escaped almost unscathed as a result of the tsunami's energy being sapped by a belt of trees such as coconut palms and mangroves. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. The effects of a tsunami can be mitigated by natural factors such as tree cover on the shoreline. Traditionally the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life. By the mid-Sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors. The port town of Aonae was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year Sede Vacante following the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268.

For instance, the tsunami which hit the island of Hokkaido on July 12, 1993 created waves as much as 30m (100 ft) tall - as high as a 10-story building. The Second Council of Lyons was convened on May 7, 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunamis are often higher than the barriers. Under present canon law, the pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80. Other localities have built floodgates and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunamis. Canon law requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the Dean of the College of Cardinals before assuming the Pontificate. Japan has implemented an extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated coastal areas. Pope Urban VI, elected 1378, was the last pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election.

While it is not possible to prevent a tsunami, in some particularly tsunami-prone countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. In 1059, the electorate was restricted to the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. Some scientists speculate that animals may have an ability to sense subsonic Rayleigh waves from an earthquake minutes or hours before a tsunami strikes shore (Kenneally, [4]).. The pope was originally chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near Rome. The phenomenon was also noted in Sri Lanka in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake ([3]). However the language of that passage of the will is not clear and others have interpreted it differently. The Lisbon quake is the first documented case of such a phenomenon in Europe. After his death it was reported that in his last will and testament he had considered abdicating in 2000 as he neared his 80th birthday.

Many animals sense danger and flee to higher ground before the water arrives. Articles on the death of John Paul II. One of the early warnings comes from nearby animals. He died on 2 April 2005 after a long period of ill-health and was buried on 8 April 2005. Computer models can roughly predict tsunami arrival and impact based on information about the event that triggered it and the shape of the seafloor (bathymetry) and coastal land (topography).[2]. Pope John Paul II did not resign. In some communities on the west coast of the United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunamis, warning signs advise people where to run in the event of an incoming tsunami. Nevertheless, 332 §2 gave rise to speculation that either:.

Regions with a high risk of tsunamis may use tsunami warning systems to detect tsunamis and warn the general population before the wave reaches land. It was widely reported in June and July 2002 that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper Corriere della Sera. In a low-lying coastal area, a strong earthquake is a major warning sign that a tsunami may be produced. The Code of Canon Law 332 §2 states, If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone.. Again, being educated about a tsunami is important, to realise that when the water level drops the first time, the danger is not yet over. A nine-day period of mourning (novem dialis) follows after the interment of the late pope. In instances where the leading edge of the tsunami is its first peak, succeeding waves can lead to further flooding. Peter's Basilica.

People unaware of the danger may remain at the shore due to curiosity, or for collecting fish from the exposed sea bed. The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral; the popes of the 20th century were all interred in St. If the slope is shallow, this recession can exceed many hundreds of metres. The deceased pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed. In instances where the leading edge of the tsunami wave is its trough, the sea will recede from the coast half of the wave's period before the wave's arrival. The Chamberlain cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. Tsunamis cannot be prevented or precisely predicted, but there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and there are many systems being developed and in use to reduce the damage from tsunamis. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons.

The following have at various times been associated with a tsunami [1]:. But in the case of Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign. As a result, Hilo suffered worse damage than any other place in Hawaii, with the tsunami/seiche reaching a height of 14 m and killing 159 inhabitants. Usually the ring is on the pope's right hand. That meant that every second wave was in phase with the motion of Hilo Bay, creating a seiche in the bay. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the Fisherman's Ring. The natural resonant period of Hilo Bay is about thirty minutes. A doctor may or may not have already determined that the pope had passed away prior to this point.

For instance, the tsunami that hit Hawaii on April 1, 1946 had a fifteen-minute interval between wave fronts. It has long been claimed that a pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late pope's head thrice with a silver hammer and calling his birth name three times, though this is disputed and has never been confirmed by the Vatican; there is general agreement that even if this procedure ever actually occurred, it was likely not employed upon the death of John Paul II. Local geographic peculiarities can lead to seiche or standing waves forming, which can amplify the onshore damage. Any decision that needs the assent of the pope has to wait until a new pope has been elected and takes office. They also need not be symmetrical; tsunami waves may be much stronger in one direction than another, depending on the nature of the source and the surrounding geography. During the "Reading Festival", the Sacred College of Cardinals, composed of the pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the Cardinal Chamberlain; however, canon law specifically forbids the Cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the Holy See. However, tsunami waves can diffract around land masses (as shown in this Indian Ocean tsunami animation as the waves reach southern Sri Lanka and India). The current regulations regarding a papal interregnum — i.e., a sede vacante ("vacant seat") — were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis.

Tsunamis propagate outward from their source, so coasts in the "shadow" of affected land masses are usually fairly safe. Some of the most striking examples of Papal political authority are the Bull Laudabiliter in 1155 (authorising Henry II of England to invade Ireland), the Bull Inter Caeteras in 1493 (leading to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world into areas of Spanish and Portuguese rule) the Bull Regnans in Excelsis in 1570 (excommunicating Elizabeth I of England and purporting to release all her subjects from their allegiance to her), the Bull Inter Gravissimas in 1582 (establishing the Gregorian Calendar). There is no proof for this. In addition to the pope's position as a territorial ruler and foremost prince bishop of Christianity (especially prominent with the Renaissance popes like Pope Alexander VI, an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politico, and Pope Julius II, a formidable general and statesman) and as the spiritual head of the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of Pope Gregory VII and Pope Alexander III), the pope also possessed a degree of political and temporal authority in his capacity as Supreme Pontiff. This gives the transient pressure built up during the quake as equal to twice and in addition to the hydrostatic pressure. As has been hitherto mentioned, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by Italy. The passing "hump" mentioned earlier is a "momentum flux" equal to density multiplied by the square of the velocity. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish ruler Charlemagne as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the Holy Roman Empire; from that date it became the pope's prerogative to crown the Emperor or any monarch with affiliations with the church until the crowning of Napoleon.

However a conjecture exists for velocities. Peter). At a water depth of 40 m, the speed would be 20 m/s (about 72 km/h or 45 mi/h), which is much slower than the speed in the open ocean but the wave would still be difficult to outrun. This status as a secular and civil leader was vividly displayed by Pope Leo I's confrontation with Attila in 452 and was substantially increased in 754, when the Frankish ruler Pippin the Younger donated to the pope a strip of territory which formed the core of the so-called Papal States (properly the Patrimony of St. For example, in the Pacific Ocean, where the typical water depth is about 4000 m, a tsunami travels at about 200 m/s (720 km/h or 450 mi/h) with little energy loss, even over long distances. Though the progressive Christianisation of the Roman Empire in the fourth century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the pope the senior Imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. Shallow-water waves move at a speed that is equal to the square root of the product of the acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s²) and the water depth. See Donation of Constantine for discussion of the broader authority the papacy has argued the Catholic Church possesses in affairs of state.

A wave becomes a 'shallow-water wave' when the ratio between the water depth and its wavelength gets very small, and since a tsunami has an extremely large wavelength (hundreds of kilometres), tsunamis act as a shallow-water wave even in deep oceanic water. While approval is generally granted, it is at the pope's discretion. As a wave goes down the whip from handle to tip, the same energy is deposited in less and less material, which then moves more violently as it receives this energy. Most of these functions are performed by and through the various dicasteries of the Roman Curia, with the pope simply approving their actions prior to becoming official. The steepening process is analogous to the cracking of a tapered whip. He can appoint bishops to dioceses, erect and suppress dioceses, appoint prefects to the Roman dicasteries, approve or veto their acts, modify the Liturgy and issue liturgical laws, revise the Code of Canon Law, canonize and beatify individuals, approve and suppress religious orders, impose canonical sanctions, act as a judge and hear cases, issue encyclicals, and issue infallible statements on matters pertaining to faith and morals which, according to the Church, must be believed by all Catholics. While a person at the surface of deep water would probably not even notice the tsunami, the wave can increase to a height of 30 m or more as it approaches the coastline and compresses. The pope has many powers which he exercises.

As the wave approaches land, the sea shallows and the wave no longer travels as quickly, so it begins to 'pile-up'; the wave-front becomes steeper and taller, and there is less distance between crests. It enables each person to attain salvation through his or her free cooperation.". The wave travels across the ocean at speeds from 500 to 1,000 km/h. This grace comes from Christ; it is the result of his sacrifice and is communicated by the Holy Spirit. The energy of a tsunami passes through the entire water column to the sea bed, unlike surface waves, which typically reach only down to a depth of 10 m or so. For such people, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally a part of the Church but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This is often practically unnoticeable to people on ships. Pope Pius IX stated in his encyclical Quanto conficiamur moeror (1868): "We all know that those who are afflicted with invincible ignorance with regard to our holy religion, if they carefully keep the precepts of the natural law that have been written by God in the hearts of all men, if they are prepared to obey God, and if they lead a virtuous and dutiful life, can attain eternal life by the power of divine light and grace." Pope John Paul II wrote in his encyclical Redemptoris Missio: "But it is clear that today, as in the past, many people do not have an opportunity to come to know or accept the Gospel revelation or to enter the Church...

The actual height of a tsunami wave in open water is often less than one metre. Many popes stressed that those who are "invincibly ignorant of the Catholic religion" can still obtain salvation. This is very different from typical wind-generated swells on the ocean, which might have a period of about 10 seconds and a wavelength of 150 metres. However, this dogma has been misinterpreted by both Catholics and non-Catholics alike. In open water, tsunamis have extremely long periods (the time for the next wave top to pass a point after the previous one), from minutes to hours, and long wavelengths of up to several hundred kilometres. and if separated from the Body of Christ he is not one of His members, nor is he fed by His Spirit.". A single tsunami event may involve a series of waves of varying heights; the set of waves is called a train. The Catholic Church alone is the Body of Christ..

This is the two-dimensional equivalent of the inverse square law in three dimensions. Blessed John XXIII said: "Into this fold of Jesus Christ no man may enter unless he be led by the Sovereign Pontiff, and only if they be united to him can men be saved." Pope Paul VI also said: "Those outside the Church do not possess the Holy Spirit. Although the total or overall loss of energy is small, the total energy is spread over a larger and larger circumference as the wave travels, so the energy per linear meter in the wave decreases as the inverse power of the distance from the source. This teaching is often summarized by the phrase "extra Ecclesiam nulla salus" (outside the Church exists no salvation), which has been reaffirmed by many popes throughout the centuries. A tsunami can cause damage thousands of kilometres from its origin, so there may be several hours between its creation and its impact on a coast, arriving long after the seismic wave generated by the originating event arrives. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that "it is absolutely necessary for the salvation of every creature to be united to the Roman Pontiff" (Pope Boniface VIII). Tsunamis act very differently from typical surf swells; they are phenomena which move the entire depth of the ocean (often several kilometres deep) rather than just the surface, so they contain immense energy, propagate at high speeds and can travel great trans-oceanic distances with little overall energy loss. It also dogmatically defined (ch.4, s.9) the doctrine of Papal infallibility, sc. such that.

Large objects such as ships and boulders can be carried several miles inland before the tsunami subsides. 331 defines the power of the pope as "supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, and he can always freely exercise this power"). The sheer weight of water is enough to pulverise objects in its path, often reducing buildings to their foundations and scouring exposed ground to the bedrock. The powers of the pope are defined by the Dogmatic Constitution (ch.3, s.8) such that "he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all cases which fall under ecclesiastical jurisdiction recourse may be had to his judgement" and that "the sentence of the apostolic see (than which there is no higher authority) is not subject to revision by anyone, nor may anyone lawfully pass judgement thereupon" (can. Most of the damage is caused by the huge mass of water behind the initial wave front, as the height of the sea keeps rising fast and floods powerfully into the coastal area. The Dogmatic Constitution's third chapter, "On the power and character of the primacy of the Roman pontiff," states that (s.1) "the definition of the ecumenical council of Florence, which must be believed by all faithful Christians, namely that the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold a world-wide primacy, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Christian people," that (s.2) "by divine ordinance, the Roman church possesses a pre-eminence of ordinary power over every other church, and that the jurisdictional power of the Roman pontiff is both episcopal and immediate" and that "clergy and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of hierarchical subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the church throughout the world.". Instead it looks rather like an endlessly onrushing tide which forces its way around and through any obstacle. The Dogmatic Constitution's second chapter, "On the permanence of the primacy of blessed Peter in the Roman pontiffs", states that (s.1) "that which our Lord Jesus Christ [...] established in the blessed apostle Peter [...] must of necessity remain forever, by Christ's authority, in the church which, founded as it is upon a rock, will stand firm until the end of time," that (s.3) "whoever succeeds to the chair of Peter obtains by the institution of Christ Himself, the primacy of Peter over the whole church", and that (s.5) "if anyone says that it is not by the institution of Christ the Lord Himself (that is to say, by divine law) that blessed Peter should have perpetual successors in the primacy over the whole church; or that the Roman pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy: let him be anathema.".

Although often referred to as "tidal waves", a tsunami does not look like the popular impression of "a normal wave only much bigger". The first chapter of this document is entitled "On the institution of the apostolic primacy in blessed Peter", and states that (s.1) "according to the Gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of God was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the Lord" and that (s.6) "if anyone says that blessed Peter the apostle was not appointed by Christ the Lord as prince of all the apostles and visible head of the whole church militant; or that it was a primacy of honour only and not one of true and proper jurisdiction that he directly and immediately received from our Lord Jesus Christ Himself: let him be anathema.". However, an extremely large landslide could generate a megatsunami that might have ocean-wide impacts. The status and authority of the pope in the Catholic Church was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council in its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ (July 18, 1870). These events can give rise to much larger local shock waves (solitons), such as the landslide at the head of Lituya Bay which produced a water wave estimated at 50 – 150 m and reached 524 m up local mountains. The ommission of the tiara in the pope´s personal coat of arms, however, did not mean the total disappearence of it from papal heraldry, since the coat of arms of the Holy See was kept unatered. Tsunamis caused by these mechanisms, unlike the ocean-wide tsunamis caused by some earthquakes, generally dissipate quickly and rarely affect coastlines distant from the source due to the small area of sea affected. The distinctive feature of the crossed keyes behind the shield was maintained.

These phenomena rapidly displace large volumes of water, as energy from falling debris or expansion is transferred to the water into which the debris falls. With the recent election of Benedict XVI in 2005, his personal coat of arms eliminated the papal tiara; a mitre with three horizontal lines is used in its place, with the pallium, a papal symbol of authority, more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan archbishops as a sign of communion with the See of Rome, was added underneath of the shield. In the 1950s it was discovered that larger tsunamis than previously believed possible could be caused by landslides, explosive volcanic action and impact events. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colours of the Pontificate. Waves are formed as the displaced water mass moves under the influence of gravity to regain its equilibrium and radiates across the ocean like ripples on a pond. The flag most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See ("Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right hand side in the white half of the flag. Similarly, a violent submarine volcanic eruption can uplift the water column and form a tsunami. Though unique for each pope, the arms are always surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in saltire (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an X) behind the escutcheon (one key silver and one key gold, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver triregnum with three gold crowns and red infulae, or the red strips of fabric hanging from the back over the shoulders when worn ("two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or").

Sub-marine landslides; which are sometimes triggered by large earthquakes; as well as collapses of volcanic edifices, may also disturb the overlying water column as sediment and rocks slide downslope and are redistributed across the sea floor. In heraldry, each pope has his own Papal Coat of Arms. Subduction earthquakes are particularly effective in generating tsunamis, and occur where denser oceanic plates slip under continental plates in a process known as subduction. Main article: Papal regalia and insignia.. Such large vertical movements of the earth's crust can occur at plate boundaries. Other important passages include Luke 22: 31 – 32, John 1: 42, and John 21: 15 – 17. Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Peter:.

An earthquake which is too small to create a tsunami by itself may trigger an undersea landslide quite capable of generating a tsunami. Chief among these passages is Matthew 16: 18 – 19, wherein Jesus Christ says to St. However, the most common cause is an undersea earthquake. The Roman Catholic Faith maintains that the institution of the Papacy has a biblical basis, and cites certain key passages in support of this contention. A tsunami can be generated by any disturbance that rapidly moves a large mass of water, such as an earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide or meteorite impact. As such, between 1309 and 1378 the popes lived in Avignon (the Avignon Papacy), a period often called the Babylonian Captivity in allusion to the Biblical exile of Israel. . The pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ubi Papa, ibi Curia, wherever the pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome.

However, since they are not actually related to tides the term is considered misleading and its usage is discouraged by oceanographers. Consequently Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. Tsunamis have been historically referred to as tidal waves because as they approach land they take on the characteristics of a violent onrushing tide rather than the sort of cresting waves that are formed by wind action upon the ocean (with which people are more familiar). Peter (see Apostolic Succession). A tsunami is not a sub-surface event in the deep ocean; it simply has a much smaller amplitude (wave heights) offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometres long), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a passing "hump" in the ocean. The name "Holy See" (also "Apostolic See") is in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honours, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the Apostle St. The term was created by fishermen who returned to port to find the area surrounding the harbour devastated, although they had not been aware of any wave in the open water. It is the pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the Holy See) and not his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City) which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the pope's court (the Roman Curia) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church.

Although in Japanese tsunami is used for both the singular and plural, in English tsunamis is well-established as the plural. The former Papal summer palace, the Quirinal Palace, has subsequently been the official residence of the Kings of Italy and President of the Italian Republic. The term tsunami comes from the Japanese language meaning harbour ("tsu", 津) and wave ("nami", 波 or 浪). Historically the official residence of the pope was the Lateran Palace, donated by the Roman Emperor Constantinus I. The effects of a tsunami can range from unnoticeable to devastating. He also possesses a summer palace at Castel Gandolfo (situated on the site of the ancient city-state Alba Longa). Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and large meteorite impacts all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The pope's official seat is the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano, and his official residence is the Palace of the Vatican.

A tsunami (IPA pronunciation /suˈnɑːmi/ or /tsuˈnɑːmi/]) is a series of waves generated when water in a lake or the sea is rapidly displaced on a massive scale. John Paul II. 16 October 1979 23 people died when the coast of Nice, France, was hit by a tsunami. (His Holiness), as in H.H. 4 July 1992 - Daytona Beach, FL. Writing informally, pious Catholics will often use the abbreviation H.H. 19 May 1964 - Northeast USA. This title, however, was not abandoned altogether: the pope is still refered to as "Dominum Apostolicum" in the Latin version of the Litany of the Saints, a solemn Catholic prayer, and in some translations of it.

21 September 1938 - Hurricane, NJ coast. Other titles used in some official capacity include Summus Pontifex ("Highest Pontiff"), Sanctissimus Pater and Beatissimus Pater ("Most Holy Father" and "Most Blessed Father"), Sanctissimus Dominus Noster ("Our Most Holy Lord"), and, in the Medieval period, Dominus Apostolicus ("Apostolic Lord"). 19 August 1931 - Atlantic City, NJ. Bishop and Servant of the Servants of God"), the latter title dating to the time of Pope Gregory I the Great. 8 August 1924 - Coney Island, NY . Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei ("NN. 6 August 1923 - Rockaway Park, Queens, NY . Bishop of the Catholic Church"), while the heading is NN.

9 June 1913 - Longport, NJ. Episcopus Ecclesia Catholicae ("NN. 35 Million years ago - Chesapeake Bay impact crater, Chesapeake Bay. The signature of Papal bulls is customarily NN. 18 August 1946 - Dominican Republic. Max." or "P.M." (abbreviation of the ancient title Pontifex Maximus, literally "Greatest Bridge-maker", but usually translated "Supreme Pontiff"). 4 August 1946 - Dominican Republic. VI"), the "PP." standing for Papa ("Pope") (or, according to unofficial sources, Pater Patrum, "Father of Fathers"), and his name is frequently accompanied in inscriptions by the abbreviation "Pont.

9 January 1926 - Maine. x" (e.g., Pope Paul VI signed his name as "Paulus PP. 18 November 1929 - Newfoundland. PP. 11 October 1918 - Puerto Rico. The pope's signature is usually in the format "NN. 17 November 1872 - Maine. This full title is rarely used.