Troy

Similarly Geoffrey of Monmouth traces the legendary kings of Britain to a supposed descendant of Aeneas called Brutus. After that, MP3 algorithms become public domain and all of these counter-productive legal hassles go away. The most famous is undoubtedly that promulgated by Virgil in the Aeneid, tracing the ancestry of the founders of Rome, and more specifically the Julio-Claudian dynasty, to the Trojan prince Aeneas. The Fraunhofer patents expire April 2010. Such was the fame of the Trojan story in Roman and medieval times that it was built upon to provide a starting point for various legends of national origin. With Thomson and Sivel both owning separate patents which they claim are needed by the codec, the legal status of MP3 remains unclear. For many years also the site was unguarded and was thoroughly looted. Motorola also recently signed with Audio MPEG to license MP3.

The archaeological site itself is, as a recent writer said, "a ruin of a ruin," because the site has been frequently excavated, and because Schliemann's archaeological methods were very destructive: in his conviction that the city of Priam would be found in the earliest layers, he demolished many interesting structures from later eras, including all of the house walls from Troy II. [3] previously sued Thomson for patent infringement on MP3 technology[4], but those disputes were resolved in November 2005 with Sisvel granting Thomson an MP3 license. The visitor sees a highly commercialised site, with a large wooden horse built as a playground for children, then shops and a museum. [2] and its US subsidiary Audio MPEG, Inc. A large number of tourists visit the site each year, mostly coming from Istanbul by bus or by ferry via Çanakkale, the nearest major town about 50 km to the north-east. Sisvel S.p.A. The archaeological site is officially called Troy by the Turkish government and appears as such on many maps. Thus while patent fees have been an issue for companies attempting to use MP3, they have not meaningfully impacted users, allowing the format to grow in popularity.

Today there is a Turkish town called Truva in the vicinity of the archaeological site, but this town has grown up recently to service the tourist trade. Furthermore, while attempts have been made to discourage distribution of encoder binaries, Thomson has stated that individuals using free MP3 encoders are not required to pay fees. Even though Homer was Ionian, the Iliad reflects the geography known to the Mycenaean Greeks, showing detailed knowledge of the mainland but not extending to the Ionian islands or Anatolia, which suggests that the Iliad reproduces an account of events handed down by tradition, to which the author did not add his own geographical knowledge. Additionally, patent holders declined to enforce license fees on open source decoders, allowing many free MP3 decoders to develop. Linguistically, a few verses of the Iliad suggest great antiquity, because they only fit the meter if projected back into Mycenaean Greek, suggesting a poetic tradition spanning the Greek Dark Ages. In spite of the patent restrictions, the perpetuation of the MP3 format continues; the reasons for this appear to be the network effects caused by:. Such a historical background gives a credible explanation for the geographical knowledge of Troy (which could, however, also have been obtained in Homer's time by visiting the traditional site of the city) and otherwise unmotivated elements in the poem (in particular the detailed Catalogue of Ships). For information about licensing fees see here and here.

Much legendary material would have been added during this time, but in this view it is meaningful to ask for archaeological and textual evidence corresponding to events referred to in the Iliad. Until the key patents expire, open source / free software encoders and players appear to be illegal for commercial use in countries that recognize software patents. In this view, the poem's core could reflect a historical campaign that took place at the eve of the decline of the Mycenaean civilization. Microsoft, the makers of the Windows operating system, chose to move away from MP3 to their own proprietary Windows Media formats to avoid the licensing issues associated with the patents. Another view is that Homer was heir to an unbroken tradition of epic poetry reaching back some 500 years into Mycenaean times. These patent issues significantly slowed the development of unlicensed MP3 software and led to increased focus on creating and popularizing alternatives such as WMA and Ogg Vorbis. The identification of the hill at Hissarlik as Troy is, in this view, a late development, following the Greek colonisation of Asia Minor in the 8th century BC. To make, sell and/or distribute products using the [MPEG Layer-3] standard and thus our patents, you need to obtain a license under these patents from us.".

In this view, no historical city of Troy existed anywhere: the name derives from a people called the Troies, who probably lived in central Greece. The letter claimed that unlicensed products "infringe the patent rights of Fraunhofer and THOMSON. In recent years scholars have suggested that the Homeric stories represented a synthesis of many old Greek stories of various Bronze Age sieges and expeditions, fused together in the Greek memory during the "dark ages" which followed the fall of the Mycenean civilization. In September 1998, the Fraunhofer Institute sent a letter to several developers of MP3 software stating that a license was required to "distribute and/or sell decoders and/or encoders". Others accept that there may be a foundation of historical events in the Homeric stories, but say that in the absence of independent evidence it is not possible to separate fact from myth in the stories. See Software patents under the European Patent Convention. Some archaeologists and historians maintain that none of the events in Homer are historical. Thomson has been granted software patents in EU countries and by the European Patent Office [1], but it is unclear whether or not they would be enforced by courts there.

It may be possible to establish connections between either story and real places and events, but these always risk to be subject to selection bias. Thomson has been actively enforcing these patents. In both cases, an ancient writer's story is now seen by some to be true, by others to be mythology or fiction. Thomson Consumer Electronics controls licensing of the MPEG-1/2 Layer 3 patents in countries that recognize software patents, including the United States and Japan, but not EU countries. The ostensible historicity of Homer's Troy faces the same hurdles as with Plato's Atlantis. MP3, which was designed and tuned for use alongside MPEG-1/2 Video, generally performs poorly on monaural data at less than 48 kbit/s or in stereo at less than 80 kbit/s. No scholars assume that the individual events in the tale (many of which centrally involve divine intervention) are historical fact; on the other hand, no scholars claim that the scenery is entirely devoid of memories of Mycenaean times: it is rather a subjective question of whether the factual content is rather more or rather less than one would have expected. Thomson claims that its mp3PRO codec achieves CD quality at 64 kbit/s, but listeners have reported that a 64 kbit/s mp3PRO file compares in quality to a 112 kbit/s MP3 file and does not come reasonably close to CD quality until about 80 kbit/s.

The story of the Iliad is not an account of the war, but a tale of the psychology, the wrath, vengeance and death of individual heroes that assumes common knowledge of the Trojan War to create a backdrop. The developers of the patent-free Ogg Vorbis codec claim that their algorithm surpasses MP3, RealAudio and WMA sound quality, and the listening tests mentioned above support that claim. The more we know about Bronze Age history, the clearer it becomes that it is not a yes-or-no question but one of educated assessment of how much historical knowledge is present in Homer. Though proponents of newer codecs such as WMA and RealAudio have asserted that their respective algorithms can achieve CD quality at 64 kbit/s, listening tests have shown otherwise; however, the quality of these codecs at 64 kbit/s is definitely superior to MP3 at the same bitrate. The dispute over the historicity of the Iliad was very heated at times. What is considered 'CD quality' is quite subjective; for some 128kbit/s MP3 is sufficient, while for others 200kbit/s or higher MP3 is necessary. Historical Wilusa was one of the Arzawa lands, in loose alliance with the Hittite Empire, and written reference to the city is therefore to be expected in Hittite correspondence rather than in Mycenaean palace archives. At high bitrates (128kbit/s+), most people do not hear significant differences.

The Mycenaean Greeks of the 13th century BC had colonized the Greek mainland and Crete, and were only beginning to make forays into Anatolia, establishing a bridgehead in Miletus (Millawanda). At 64kbit/s, AAC-HE and mp3pro performed marginally better than other codecs. A name Wilion or Troia does not appear in any of the Greek written records from the Mycenean sites. At 128kbit/s, Ogg Vorbis, AAC, MPC and WMA Pro tied for first place with LAME MP3 a little behind. But even if that is accepted, it is of course no positive proof of identity with Homeric (W)ilion. Listening tests have attempted to find the best-quality lossy audio codecs at certain bitrates. Our emerging understanding of the geography of the Hittite Empire makes it very likely that the site corresponds to the city of Wilusa. These include:.

A single seal of a Luwian scribe has been found in one of the houses, proving the presence of written correspondence in the city, but not a single text. While they are not similar to MP3, they are good examples of other compression schemes available. This is probably due to the planification of the former hillfort during the construction of Hellenistic Ilium (Troy IX), destroying the parts that most likely contained the city archives. There are also some lossless audio compression methods used on the Internet. No text or artifact has been found on site itself which clearly identifies the Bronze Age site. The Fraunhofer Gesellschaft owns many of the basic patents underlying these codecs, with Dolby Labs, Sony, Thomson Consumer Electronics, and AT&T holding other key patents. The events described in Homer's Iliad, even if based on historical events that preceded its composition by some 450 years, will never be completely identifiable with historical or archaeological facts, even if there was a Bronze Age city on the site now called Troy, and even if that city was destroyed by fire or war at about the same time as the time postulated for the Trojan War. mp3PRO, MP3, AAC, and MP2 are all members of the same technological family and depend on roughly similar psychoacoustic models.

The identifications of Wilusa with archaeological Troy and of the Achaeans with the Ahhiyawa remain controversial, but gained enough popularity during the 1990s to be considered a majority opinion. Many other lossy audio codecs exist, including:. Hittite texts mention a water tunnel at Wilusa, and a water tunnel excavated by Korfmann, previously thought to be Roman, has been dated to around 2600 BC. Typically, the average volume and clipping information about audio track is stored in the metadata tag. Recent evidence adds weight to the theory that Wilusa is identical to archaeological Troy. The most popular and widely used solution for storing replay gain is known simply as "Replay Gain". Trevor Bryce in 1998 championed them in his book The Kingdom of the Hittites, citing a recovered piece of the so-called Manapa-Tarhunda letter, which refers to the kingdom of Wilusa as beyond the land of the Seha (known in classical times as the Caicus) river, and near the land of Lazpa (the Isle of Lesbos). The idea is to normalize the volume (not the volume peaks) of audio files, so that the volume does not change between consecutive tracks.

These identifications were rejected by many scholars as being improbable or at least unprovable. A few standards for encoding the gain of an MP3 file have been proposed. This people have been identified with the Homeric Greeks (Achaeans). As compact discs and other various sources are recorded and mastered at different volumes, it is useful to store volume information about a file in the tag so that at playback time, the volume can be dynamically adjusted. 1320 BC wrote a letter to the king of the Ahhiyawa, treating him as an equal and implying that Miletus (Millawanda) was controlled by the Ahhiyawa, and also referring to an earlier "Wilusa episode" involving hostility on the part of the Ahhiyawa. APEv2 can coexist with ID3 tags in the same file, but it can also be used by itself. The Hittite king Mursili II in ca. APEv2 was originally developed for the MPC file format (see the APEv2 specification).

He further noted that the name of Alaksandus, king of Wilusa, mentioned in one of the Hittite texts is quite similar to the name of Prince Alexandros or Paris of Troy. The most widespread standard tag formats are currently the ID3 ID3v1 and ID3v2 tags, and the more recent APEv2 tag. In the 1920s the Swiss scholar Emil Forrer claimed that placenames found in Hittite texts — Wilusa and Taruisa — should be identified with Ilium and Troia respectively. A "tag" is data stored in an MP3 (as well as other formats) that contains metadata such as the title, artist, album, track number or other information about the MP3 file to be added to the file itself. Korfmann died on 11 August 2005, and since the digging permit was tied to his person, it is uncertain how and when the excavations will continue. Therefore, for the most part, comparison of decoders is almost exclusively based on how computationally efficient they are (i.e., how much memory or CPU time they use in the decoding process). Possible evidence of a battle was also found in the form of arrowheads found in layers dated to the early 12th century BC. The MP3 file has a standard format which is a frame consisting of 384, 576, or 1152 samples (depends on MPEG version and layer) and all the frames have associated header information(32 bits) and side information(9, 17, or 32 bytes, depending on MPEG version and stereo/mono).The header and side information help the decoder to decode the associated huffman encoded data correctly.

It is claimed by Korfmann that the ditch may have once have marked the outer defences of a much larger city than had previously been suspected. Most decoders are "bitstream compliant", meaning that the uncompressed output they produce from a given MP3 file will be the same (within a specified degree of rounding tolerance) as the output specified mathematically in the standard document. Remains found in the ditch were dated to the late Bronze Age, the alleged time of Homeric Troy. Decoding, on the other hand, is carefully defined in the standard. In August 2003 following a magnetic imaging survey of the fields below the fort, a deep ditch was located and excavated among the ruins of a later Greek and Roman city. It must be kept in mind that an encoder that is proficient at encoding at higher bitrates (such as LAME, which is in widespread use for encoding at higher bitrates) is not necessarily as good at other, lower bitrates. The question of Troy's status in the Bronze Age world has been the subject of a sometimes acerbic debate between Korfmann and the Tübingen historian Frank Kolb in 2001/2002. Comparisons are widely available, so it is easy for a prospective user of an encoder to research the best choice.

In 1988 excavations were resumed by a team of the University of Tübingen and the University of Cincinnati under the direction of Professor Manfred Korfmann. As a result, there are many different MP3 encoders available, each producing files of differing quality. These excavations have shown that were at least nine cities built one on top of each other at this site. This is the domain of psychoacoustics, which aims at understanding how human acoustical perception works (both in our ears and in our brain). After Schliemann, the site was further excavated under the direction of Wilhelm Dörpfeld (1893/4) and later Carl Blegen (1932-8). This is done to limit the temporal spread of quantization noise accompanying the transient. Schliemann declared one of these cities—at first Troy I, later Troy II—to be the city of Troy, and this identification was widely accepted at that time. If there is a transient 192 samples are taken instead of 576.

Here he discovered the ruins of a series of ancient cities, dating from the Bronze Age to the Roman period. Implementers of the standard were supposed to devise their own algorithms suitable for removing parts of the information in the raw audio (or rather its MDCT representation in the frequency domain).During encoding 576 time domain samples are taken and is transformed to 576 frequency domain samples. In the 1870s (in two campaigns, 1871-73 and 1878/9), however, the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavated a hill, called Hissarlik by the Turks, near the town of Chanak (Çanakkale) in north-western Anatolia. The decoding algorithm and file format, as a contrast, are well defined. With the rise of modern critical history, Troy and the Trojan War were consigned to the realms of legend. The MPEG-1 standard does not include a precise specification for an MP3 encoder. In Byzantine times the city declined gradually, and eventually disappeared. Nevertheless, a well-tuned MP3 encoder can perform competitively even with these restrictions.

The last city on this site, Hellenistic Ilium, was founded by Romans during the reign of the emperor Augustus and was an important trading city until the establishment of Constantinople in the fourth century as the eastern capital of the Roman Empire. In technical terms, MP3 is limited in the following ways:. 1020 BC) appear to have been destroyed by fires. Newer audio compression formats such as Vorbis and AAC no longer have these limitations. 1120 BC) and Troy VIIb₂ (ca. There are several limitations inherent to the MP3 format that cannot be overcome by using a better encoder. Troy VIIb₁ (ca. Non-standard bitrates up to 640 kbit/s can be achieved with the LAME encoder and the --freeformat option, however only few MP3 players can play those files.

However, only small portions of the city have been excavated, and the finds are too scarce to clearly favour destruction by war over a natural disaster. Some encoders utilize this technique to a great extent. Three bronze arrowheads were found, two in the fort and one in the city. This method compares to a sound activated tape recorder that reduces tape consumption by not recording silence. Partial human remains were found in houses and in the streets, and near the north-western ramparts a human skeleton with skull injuries and a broken jawbone. This technique makes it possible to use more bits for parts of the sound with higher dynamics (more sound movement) and fewer bits for parts with lower dynamics, further increasing quality and decreasing storage space. Until the 1988 excavations, the problem was that Troy VII seemed to be a hill-top fort, and not a city of the size described by Homer, but later identification of parts of the city ramparts suggests a city of considerable size. Audio in MP3 files are divided into frames (which have their own bit rate) so it is possible to change the bit rate dynamically as the file is encoded (although not originally implemented, VBR is in extensive use today).

It appears to have been destroyed by a war, and there are traces of a fire. Variable bit rates (VBR) are also possible. The archaeological layer known as Troy VIIa, which has been dated on the basis of pottery styles to the mid- to late-13th century BC, is the most often-cited candidate for the Troy of Homer. MPEG-2 and [the non-official] MPEG-2.5 includes some additional bit rates: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, 144, 160 kbit/s. Only a single arrowhead was found in this layer, and no bodily remains. 44.1 kHz is almost always used (coincides with the sampling rate of compact discs), and 128 kbit/s has become the de facto "good enough" standard, although 192 Kbit/s is becoming increasingly popular over peer-to-peer file sharing networks. Troy VI was destroyed around 1300 BC, probably by an earthquake. Bit rates available in MPEG-1 Layer 3 are 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, 160, 192, 224, 256 and 320 kbit/s, and the available sample frequencies are 32, 44.1 and 48 kHz.

During the Bronze Age, the site seems to have been a flourishing mercantile city, since its location allowed for complete control of the Dardanelles, through which every merchant ship from the Aegean Sea heading for the Black Sea had to pass. In the early days of MP3 encoding, a fixed bit rate was used for the entire file. The first city was founded in the 3rd millennium BC. The general rule is that more information is included from the original sound file when a higher bit rate is used, and thus the higher the quality during play back. The layers of ruins on the site are numbered Troy I – Troy IX, with various subdivisions:. The bit rate is variable for MP3 files. Once Troy fell, the Trojans on the European shore fled northward and ended up as the Etruscans in Italy. For these operations, the concerns mentioned above are not necessarily relevant, as long as appropriate software (such as mp3DirectCut and MP3Gain) is used to prevent extra decoding-encoding steps.

During the Trojan War, the Greeks used a naval blockade to prevent Trojans on the European shore and on Lemnos from coming to the aid of Troy. Some simple editing operations, such as cutting sections of audio, may be performed directly on the encoded MP3 data without necessitating reencoding. After attacking and destroying the Hittite Empire, they came to control the Straits. Lossless formats produce the best possible result, at the expense of a lower compression ratio. Dillon argues [7] that the Trojans were originally a steppe people related to the Magyars. The losses produced by multiple stages of coding may also compound each other, becoming more evident when the signal is reencoded after processing. Historian Kenneth J. Lossless formats are strongly preferred for material that will be edited, mixed, or otherwise processed because the perceptual assumptions made by lossy encoders may not hold true after processing.

Immanuel Velikovsky, while accepting the traditional geography of the Trojan War, argued [6] that the Greek Dark Ages never happened, and that the Trojan War was fought several centuries later than is now generally believed. If your aim is to archive sound files with no loss of quality (or work on the sound files in a studio for example), then you should use Lossless compression algorithms, currently capable of compressing 16-bit PCM audio to 38% while leaving the audio identical to the original, such as Lossless Audio LA, Apple Lossless, FLAC, Windows Media Audio 9 Lossless (wma) and Monkey's Audio (among others). Dr. The numbers given above are rough guidelines that work for many people, but in the field of lossy audio compression the only true measure of the quality of a compression process is to listen to the results. Neither theory is generally accepted by classicists. Merely changing the conditions of listening, such as the audio playing system or environment, can expose unwanted distortions caused by lossy compression. Iman Wilkins has located Troy in England [4], while Felipe Vinci places it in southern Finland [5]. Individual acoustic perception may vary, so it is not evident that a certain psychoacoustic model can give satisfactory results for everyone.

A small minority of contemporary scholars dispute the Anatolian location of Homer's Troy. A given bit rate suffices for some listeners but not for others. Their conclusion was that there is regularly a consistency between the location of Troy as identified by Schliemann (and other locations such as the Greek camp), the geological evidence, and descriptions of the topology and accounts of the battle in the Iliad. It is important to note that quality of an audio signal is subjective. The geologists compared the present geology with the landscapes and coastal features described in the Iliad and other classical sources, notably Strabo's Geographia. A 128 kbit/s MP3 produced by a good encoder might sound better than a 192 kbit/s MP3 file produced by a bad encoder. Luce from Trinity College, Dublin presented the results (see [1], [2], & [3]) of investigations into the geology of the region that had started in 1977. It is therefore misleading to speak of 128 kbit/s or 192 kbit/s quality, except in the context of a particular encoder or of the best available encoders.

Kraft from the University of Delaware and John V. Good encoders produce acceptable quality at 128 to 160 Kibit/s and near-transparency at 160 to 192 kbit/s, while low quality encoders may never reach transparency, not even at 320 kbit/s. In November 2001, geologists John C. Many early encoders that are no longer widely used:. Ancient Greek historians placed the Trojan War variously in the 12th, 13th or 14th century BC: Eratosthenes to 1184 BC, Herodotus to 1250 BC, Douris to 1334 BC. A few possible encoders:. Alexander the Great, for example, visited the site in 334 BC and made sacrifices at the alleged tombs of the Homeric heroes Achilles and Patroclus. Different encoders may achieve this with varying degrees of success.

The Greeks and Romans took for a fact the historicity of the Trojan War, and in the identity of Homeric Troy with the site in Anatolia. Due to the fact that their lossy encoding loses information, MP3 algorithms work hard to ensure that the parts lost cannot be detected by human listeners by modeling the general characteristics of human hearing (e.g., due to noise masking). The Homeric legend of Troy was elaborated by the Roman poet Virgil in his work the Aeneid. Tests may be biased against older formats in favour of new ones by using older encoders based on out-of-date technologies, or even buggy encoders for the old format. Besides the Iliad, there are references to Troy in the other major work attributed to Homer, the Odyssey, as well as in other ancient Greek writings. When comparing compression schemes, it is important to use encoders that are of equivalent quality. The site of the ancient city today is some 15 kilometers from the coast, but the ancient mouths of Scamander, some 3,000 years ago, were some 5 kilometers further inland, pouring into a bay that has since been filled with alluvial material. They would contend that more realistic rates would be as follows:.

The city of Troy itself stood on a hill, across the plain of Scamander, where the battles of the Trojan War took place. Many people consider these quoted rates as being heavily skewed in favour of Layer 2 and Layer 3 recordings. In the Iliad, the Achaeans set up their camp near the mouth of the river Scamander (modern Karamenderes), where they had beached their ships. However, as different encoders use different models, it is difficult to draw absolute comparisons of this kind. Aeneas landed there and Helenus foretold his future. The differences between the layers are caused by the different psychoacoustic models used by them; the Layer 1 algorithm is typically substantially simpler, therefore a higher bit rate is needed for transparent encoding. Buthrotos (or Buthrotum) was a city in Epirus where Helenus, the Trojan seer, built a replica of Troy. Fraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG) publish on their official webpage the following compression ratios and data rates for MPEG-1 Layer 1, 2 and 3, intended for comparison:.

The altar of Panomphaean (‘source of all oracles’) was dedicated to Jupiter the Thunderer (Tonatus) near Troy. Obviously, imperfections in an MP3 encode will be much less apparent on low-end computer speakers than on a good stereo system connected to a computer or -- especially -- using high-quality headphones. Mount Ida ("Mount of the Goddess") in Asia Minor, is where Ganymede was abducted by Zeus, where Anchises was seduced by Aphrodite, where Aphrodite gave birth to Aeneas, where Paris lived as a shepherd, where the nymphs lived, where the "Judgement of Paris" took place, where the Greek gods watched the Trojan War, where Hera distracted Zeus with her seductions long enough to permit the taking of Troy, and where Aeneas and his followers rested and waited until the Greeks set out for Greece. Yet other listeners, and the same listeners in other environments (such as in a noisy moving vehicle or at a party) will consider the quality acceptable. This law was adopted by King Dunvallo Molmutius (from Brutus) in his code and is still in effect today in Britain. However, listening tests show that with a bit of practice many listeners can reliably distinguish 128 kbit/s MP3s from CD originals; in many cases reaching the point where they consider the MP3 audio to be of unacceptably low quality. Gordon allowed queens as well as kings. For average signals with good encoders, many listeners accept the MP3 bit rate of 128 kibit/s as near enough to compact disc quality for them, providing a compression ratio of approximately 11:1.

A Trojan law mentioned by E.O. As well as the bit rate of the encoded file, the quality of MP3 files depend on the quality of the encoder and the difficulty of the signal being encoded. Pegsis was the naiad of the River Grenikos near Troy. A good demonstration of compression artifacts is provided by the sound of applause: it is hard to compress because it is random, therefore the failings of the encoder are more obvious, and are audible as ringing. The Aisepid nymphs were the naiads of the Trojan River Aisepos. With too low a bit rate, "compression artifacts" (i.e., sounds that were not present in the original recording) may appear in the reproduction. Some of the Trojan allies were the Hittites and the Amazons. MP3 files encoded with a lower bit rate will generally play back at a lower quality.

Kapys, Boukolion, Aisakos, and Paris were Trojan princes who had naias wives. By contrast, uncompressed audio as stored on a compact disc has a bit rate of about 1400 kbit/s. Some famous Trojans are: Dardanus (founder of Troy), Laomedon, Ganymede, Priam, Paris, Hector, Teucer, Aesacus, Oenone, Telamon, Tithonus, Antigone, Memnon, Corythus, Aeneas, Brutus, and Elymus. Typically rates chosen are between 128 and 256 kilobit per second. The Persians invaded in 546 BC. Because MP3 is a lossy format, it is able to provide a number of different options for its "bit rate"—that is, the number of bits of encoded data that are used to represent each second of audio. The Ionians, Cimmerians, Phrygians, Milesians of Sinope, and Lydians moved into Asia Minor. The use of formats that supports DRM is in an attempt to prevent piracy of copyright protected materials, but any computer savvy person can easily rip the DRM from a song file turning it into a file that is not locked to any computer.

Trojan rule in Asia Minor was replaced by the "sons of Herakles" dynasty in Sardis that ruled for 505 years until the time of Candaules. Commercial online music distribution services (like the iTunes Music Store) usually prefer other/proprietary music file formats that support Digital Rights Management (DRM) to control and restrict the use of digital music. The Trojan ships transformed into naiads, who rejoiced to see the wreckage of Odysseus' ship. Due to the vastly increased spread of MP3s through the Internet some major record labels reacted by filing a lawsuit against Napster to protect their Copyrights (see also intellectual property). The Maxyans were a west Libyan tribe who said that they were descended from the men of Troy, according to Herodotus. Controversies regarding peer-to-peer file sharing of MP3 files have flourished in recent years — largely because high compression enables sharing of files that would otherwise be too large and cumbersome to share. During his reign, the Mycenaean Greeks invaded and captured Troy in the Trojan War (traditionally dated to 1193 BC-1183 BC). Those programs made it very easy for the average user to playback, create, share, and collect MP3s.

Priam later became king. MP3 popularity was mostly due to, and interchangeable with, the successes of companies and software packages like Nullsoft's Winamp (released in 1997), mpg123, and Napster (released in 1999). One generation before the Trojan War, Heracles captured Troy and killed Laomedon and his sons, except for young Priam. In the first half of 1995 through the late 1990s, MP3 files began flourishing on the Internet. Pestilence came and the sea monster snatched away the people of the plain. Other founding members include Jon Luini, Brandee Selck, and Ahin Savara. When Laomedon refused to pay, Poseidon flooded the land and demanded the sacrifice of Hesione to a sea monster. IUMA was started by Rob Lord (who later headed pioneering Nullsoft) and Jeff Patterson, both from the University of California, Santa Cruz, in 1993.

Poseidon and Apollo built the walls and fortifications around Troy for Laomedon, son of Ilus the younger. IUMA was the Internet's first high-fidelity music web site, hosting thousands of authorized MP2 recordings before MP3 or the web was popularized. Zeus gave Ilus the Palladium. The Internet Underground Music Archive (IUMA) is generally recognized as the start of the on-line music revolution. Ilus, son of Tros, founded the city of Ilium (Troy) that he called after himself. Initially the only encoder available for MP2 production was the Xing Encoder, accompanied by the program CDDA2WAV, a CD ripper that transformed CD audio tracks to computer data files. Upon Dardanus' death, the Kingdom was passed to his grandson Tros, who called the people Trojans and the land Troad, after himself. In October 1993, MP2 (MPEG-1 Audio Layer 2) files appeared on the Internet and were often played back using the Xing MPEG Audio Player, and later in a program for Unix by Tobias Bading called MAPlay, which was initially released on February 22nd, 1994 (MAPlay was also ported to the Microsoft Windows).

Eventually Dardanus married Teucer's daughters, and founded Dardania (later ruled by Aeneas). Because of the relatively small hard drives back in that time (~500 MB) the technology was essential to store music for listening pleasure on a computer. Teucer was himself also a coloniser from Attica, and treated Dardanus with respect. With the first real-time software MP3 player Winplay3 (released September 9th, 1995) many people were able to encode and playback MP3 files on their PCs. Dardanus, the legendary founder of Troy, crossed over to Asia Minor from the insland of Samothrace, where he met Teucer. The filename extension .mp3 was chosen by the Fraunhofer team on July 14, 1995 (previously, the files had been named .bit). The Trojan royal family was started by Electra and Zeus, the parents of Dardanus. Later on, on July 7, 1994 the Fraunhofer Society released the first software MP3 encoder called l3enc.

Troy was known for its riches, gained from port trade with east and west, fancy clothes, iron production, and massive defensive walls. Some other real time implementation of MPEG Audio encoders were available for the purpose of digital broadcasting (radio DAB, television DVB) towards consumer receivers and set top boxes. According to Greek mythology, the Trojans were the ancient citizens of the city of Troy in the Troad area, in the land of Asia Minor (or Little Asia, now Turkey). Working in non real time on a number of operating systems it was able to demonstrate the first real time hardware decoding (DSP based) of compressed audio. The story of the Trojans first began in myth and legend. A reference simulation software written in C language known as ISO 11172-5 was developed by the members of the ISO MPEG Audio committee in order to produce bit compliant MPEG Audio files (Layer 1, Layer 2, Layer 3). . Some more serious and critical audio excerpts (glockenspiel, triangle, accordion, ...) were taken from the EBU V3/SQAM reference compact disc and have been used by professional sound engineers to assess the subjective quality of the MPEG Audio formats.

While such an identity is disputed, the site has been successfully identified with the city called Wilusa in Hittite texts; Ilion (which goes back to earlier Wilion with a digamma) is thought to be the Greek rendition of that name. This song was chosen because of its softness and simplicity, making it easier to hear imperfections in the compression format during playbacks. One of the earlier cities (Troy VII) is often identified with Homeric Troy. Karlheinz Brandenburg used a CD recording of Suzanne Vega's song Tom's Diner to assess the MP3 compression algorithm. Later excavations revealed several cities built in succession to one another. Compression ratios with this reference are higher, which demonstrates the problem of the term compression ratio for lossy encoders. In the 1870s the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavated the area. Sometimes the Digital Audio Tape (DAT) SP parameters are used (48 kHz, 2x16 bit).

The Roman city of Celeia (now Celje in Slovenia) has been referred to by some writers as Troia secunda ("the second Troy"). Nevertheless, there are often published compression rates that use the CD parameters as references (44.1 kHz, 2 channels at 16 bits per channel or 2x16 bit). It flourished until the establishment of Constantinople, and declined gradually during Byzantine times. Compression efficiency of encoders is typically defined by the bit rate because compression rate depends on the bit depth and sampling rate of the input signal. A new city of Ilium was founded on the site that many believed to be the location of the legendary Ilion in the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus. Further work on MPEG audio was finalized in 1994 as part of the second suite of MPEG standards, MPEG-2, more formally known as international standard ISO/IEC 13818-3, originally published in 1995. Troy (Truva, Hissarlik 39°58′N 26°13′E) is also the name of an archaeological site, the traditional location of Homeric Troy, in Asia Minor or Anatolia, close to the seacoast in what is now northwest Turkey, southwest of the Dardanelles under Mount Ida. All algorithms were finalized in 1992 as part of MPEG-1, the first standard suite by MPEG, which resulted in the international standard ISO/IEC 11172-3, published in 1993.

Troy (Turkish: Truva, Greek Τροία Troia also Ἰλιον; Latin: Troia, Ilium) is a legendary city, scene of the Trojan War, part of which is described in Homer's Iliad, an epic poem in Ancient Greek, composed in the 8th or 7th century BC, but containing older material (Iliad means "epic of Ilion"). Johnston (US), Gerhard Stoll (Germany), Yves-François Dehery (France), Karlheinz Brandenburg (Germany) took ideas from Musicam and ASPEC, added some of their own ideas and created MP3, which was designed to achieve the same quality at 128 kbit/s as MP2 at 192 kbit/s. Troy IX: Hellenistic Ilium, 1st century BC. Further, on a working group consisting of J.D. Troy VIII: around 700 BC. Stoll (Layer II). 950 BC. van de Kerkhof (Layer I) and G.

Troy VIIb₃: until ca. Under the chairmanship of Professor Mussmann (University of Hannover) the editing of the standard was made under the responsibilities of L. Troy VIIb₂: 11th century BC. Its technologies and ideas were fully incorporated into the definition of ISO MPEG Audio Layer I and Layer II and further on of the Layer III (MP3) format. Troy VIIb₁: 12th century BC. The Musicam format based on subband coding was key to settle the basis of the MPEG Audio compression format (sampling rates, structure of frames, headers, number of samples per frame). 1300 – 1190 BC, most likely candidate for Homeric Troy. The Musicam technique, as proposed by Philips (The Netherlands), CCETT (France), IRT (Germany) was chosen due to its simplicity and error robustness, as well as its low computational power associated to the encoding of high quality compressed audio.

Troy VIIa: ca. In 1991, there were two proposals available: Musicam (known as Layer 2), and ASPEC (Adaptive Spectral Perceptual Entropy Coding). Troy VIh: late Bronze Age, 14th century BC. EU-147 ran from 1987 to 1994. Troy VI: 17th – 15th centuries BC. This project was financed by the European Union as a part of the EUREKA research program where it was commonly known as EU-147. Troy V: 20th – 18th centuries BC. MPEG-1 Audio Layer 2 encoding began as the Digital Audio Broadcast (DAB) project managed by Egon Meier-Engelen of the DFVLR (later on called DLR = Deutsche Luft und Raumfahrt = German Aerospace Agency) in Germany.

Troy I – Troy IV: early Bronze Age (3rd millennium BC). Nevertheless, any succession is not likely to happen for a significant amount of time due to MP3's overwhelming popularity (MP3 enjoys extremely wide popularity and support, not just by end-users and software but by hardware such as DVD and CD players). In terms of the MPEG specifications, AAC (Advanced audio coding) from MPEG-4 is to be the successor of the MP3 format, although there has been a significant movement to create and popularize other audio formats. MP3 Surround is backward compatible with standard stereo MP3, and file sizes are similar. MP3 Surround, a version of the format supporting 5.1 channels for surround sound, was introduced in December 2004.

The MP3 format uses, at its heart, a hybrid transformation to transform a time domain signal into a frequency domain signal:. MP3 audio can be compressed with different bit rates, providing a range of tradeoffs between data size and sound quality. A number of techniques are employed in MP3 to determine which portions of the audio can be discarded, including psychoacoustics. It provides a representation of pulse-code modulation-encoded (PCM) audio data in a much smaller size by discarding portions that are considered less important to human hearing (similar to JPEG, a lossy compression for images).

MP3 is a compression format. . In popular usage, MP3 also refers to files of sound or music recordings stored in the MP3 format on computers. It was designed to greatly reduce the amount of data required to represent audio, yet still sound like a faithful reproduction of the original uncompressed audio to most listeners.

MPEG Audio Layer 3, more commonly referred to as MP3, is a popular digital audio encoding and lossy compression format invented and standardized in 1991 by a team of engineers working in the framework of the ISO/IEC MPEG audio committee under the chairmanship of Professor Hans Musmann (University of Hannover - Germany). the majority of home users not knowing or not caring about the software patent controversy, which is in general irrelevant to their choice of the MP3 format for personal use. the lack of DRM-protection technology, which makes MP3 files easy to edit, copy and distribute over networks,. the wide variety of existing software and hardware that takes advantage of the file format,.

the large quantity of music now available in the MP3 format,. the fact that these alternatives do not universally provide a definite advantage over MP3,. familiarity with the format, not knowing alternatives exist,. Apple Lossless.

Wavpack. TTA. SHN, also known as Shorten. Monkey's Audio.

FLAC stands for 'Free Lossless Audio Codec'. Speex, free software and patent free codec based on CELP specifically designed for speech and VoIP. RealAudio from RealNetworks, frequently in use for streaming on websites;. AMR-WB+ Enhanced Adaptive Multi Rate WideBand codec, optimized for cellular and other limited bandwidth use;.

QDesign, used in QuickTime at low bitrates;. Windows Media Audio (WMA) from Microsoft. MPEG-4 AAC, used by Apple's iTunes Music Store and iPod. ATRAC, used in Sony's Minidisc;.

AC-3, used in Dolby Digital and DVD;. mp3PRO from Thomson Multimedia combining MP3 with SBR;. MPC, also known as Musepack (formerly MP+), a derivative of MP2;. Ogg Vorbis from the Xiph.org Foundation, a free software and patent free codec.

MPEG-1/2 Audio Layer 2 (MP2), MP3's predecessor;. Encoder/decoder overall delay is not defined, which means lack of official provision for gapless playback; gaps may be introduced between tracks, although this can be avoided to a degree by using LAME to encode. Joint stereo is done on a frame-to-frame basis. No scale factor band for frequencies above 15.5/15.8 kHz.

Time resolution can be too low for highly transient signals. Bitrate is limited to a maximum of 320 kbit/s. ACM Producer Pro. BladeEnc.

Xing. ISO dist10 reference code. Fraunhofer Gesellschaft: Some encoders are good, some have bugs. It is (in contrast to others) a fully LGPL'd MP3 encoder, with excellent speed and quality, rivaling even MP3's technological successors.

LAME first created by Mike Cheng in early 1998. Layer 3: excellent at 224...320 Kbit/s, very good at 192...224 Kbit/s, good at 128...192 Kbit/s. Layer 2: excellent at 256...384 kbit/s, very good at 224...256 Kbit/s, good at 192...224 Kbit/s. Layer 1: excellent at 384 kbit/s.

Layer 3: 112...128 kbit/s, compression 12:1...10:1. Layer 2: 192...256 kbit/s, compression 8:1...6:1. Layer 1: 384 kbit/s, compression 4:1. Aliasing reduction postprocessing.

36 or 12 tap MDCT; size can be selected independent for sub-band 0...1 and 2...31. 32-band polyphase quadrature filter.