Sri Lanka

Articles about Sri Lanka`s current defence status. Kramer, for instance, still believes that Vines was the best ever.¹ Among the women, Lenglen and Wills Moody vie for the distinction of greatest of all time, along with several modern players: Court, Navratilova, Evert, and Graf. Statistics on Civilians Affected by War in Northeast 1974-2004 A Full Report in 11 pages. Even among experts, however, no consensus exists as to who has been the greatest of all. A cease-fire was declared in 2002, but renewed violence in late 2005 led to fears of a renewed civil war. Roger Federer is considered by many commentators to have the most "complete" game in modern tennis, with the potential to challenge the achievements of these past greats. It is estimated that the war has left 65,000 people dead since 1983 and caused great harm to the population and economy of the country. Since then, first Laver, then more recently Borg and Sampras, have been widely regarded as the greatest ever.

Since 1983, there has been on-and-off civil war, mostly between the government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, or the LTTE, who want to create an independent Tamil Eelam state in the northeast of the island. For much of the 1950s and 1960s, many thought Gonzales had claimed that title. The ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka is an ongoing conflict between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamils on the island-nation of Sri Lanka. Until the mid-1950s, Bill Tilden was generally considered the greatest player ever, his only rivals being Vines, Budge, and Kramer. See Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. Among the women are Margaret Smith Court, Maria Bueno, Billie Jean King, Evonne Goolagong, Chris Evert, Hana Mandlíková, Martina Navratilova, Steffi Graf, Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, Monica Seles, Martina Hingis, Lindsay Davenport, Venus Williams, Serena Williams, and Justine Henin-Hardenne. While Islam and Christianity (including 6% Catholics and 1% Protestants) represent 8% and 7% of the population respectively. Among the greatest male players of the Open era are Rod Laver, Jimmy Connors, John Newcombe, Stan Smith, Guillermo Vilas, Arthur Ashe, Björn Borg, John McEnroe, Ivan Lendl, Mats Wilander, Boris Becker, Stefan Edberg,Goran Ivanišević, Jim Courier, Pete Sampras, Marcelo Rios, Patrick Rafter, Andre Agassi, Gustavo Kuerten, Lleyton Hewitt, Andy Roddick, and Roger Federer.

Buddhism (69%) and Hinduism (15.5%) are the dominant religions. Doris Hart was the first player to win all 12 possible singles, doubles and mixed doubles Grand Slam titles. Smaller minorities include (mostly Sunni) Muslims (7%), mostly of mixed Arab, Persian, Tamil and Sinhalese origins and Malay descent, Burghers of mixed European descent (1%) and the Wanniyala-Aetto or Veddahs, the few remaining descendants of earlier cultures. Maureen Connolly was the first female player to win a Grand Slam in 1953. All three languages are used in education and administration. Among women the top two pre-Open era players are considered to be Suzanne Lenglen and Helen Wills Moody. English, the link language in the present constitution, is spoken competently by about 10% of the population, and is widely understood. Other fine players of the pre-Open era include Maurice McLoughlin, "Little Bill" Johnston, the "Four Musketeers" (Jean Borotra, Jacques Brugnon, Henri Cochet, and René Lacoste), Vinnie Richards, Jack Crawford, Vic Seixas, and Tony Trabert.

Both Sinhala and Tamil are official languages. Any one of these eleven would probably be competitive in today's game. Tamils comprise two communities: Native Tamils and more recent immigrants from India called as Indian Origin Tamils. Among them are "Big Bill" Tilden, Ellsworth Vines, Fred Perry, Don Budge, Bobby Riggs, Jack Kramer, Pancho Segura, Frank Sedgman, Pancho Gonzales, Ken Rosewall, and Lew Hoad. Tamils constitute 18%, are predominantly Hindu, and live mostly in the north, east and central provinces. Many great players played in the days before tennis's Open era, many of whom are unknown by modern sports fans. About 74% of Sri Lankans are Sinhalese, most of them Buddhist, mostly following the Theravada tradition. Each year, a grass-court tournament is hosted on the grounds that are home to the Tennis Hall of Fame, as well as an induction ceremony honoring new Hall of Fame members.

Assimilation and intermixing has produced a group of people who are marginaly different from each other irrespective of current racial claims. The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honoring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Racial identities in Sri Lanka do not represent the genetic heritage. In 1954 James Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit museum in Newport, Rhode Island. In December 2005, Sri Lanka received its first international credit rating with Fitch Ratings assigning it a BB- (a rating held by Brazil and Indonesia among others). Since the 1970s great champions have emerged from Germany (Boris Becker, Steffi Graf), the former Czechoslovakia (Ivan Lendl, Martina Navratilova, and Hana Mandlikova), Sweden (Björn Borg, Stefan Edberg and Mats Wilander), Brazil (Gustavo Kuerten), Russia (Yevgeny Kafelnikov and Marat Safin), Belgium (Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin-Hardenne), Switzerland (Martina Hingis and Roger Federer) and from many other countries. A September 2005 IMF report called for an end to 'fiscal domination' of monetary policy and more independence for the Central Bank so that inflation could be contained. With the beginning of the Open era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis has spread all over the world and has lost its upper-class English-speaking image.

The tsunami helped stabilize the deterioration of macro-economic fundamentals as foreign debt relief and assistance from the International Monetary Fund strengthened both the external sector and fiscal operations. In 1968, commercial pressures led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the Open era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis. But GDP growth, which had climbed to 6.4% by the first quarter of 2004 had fallen to 4.8% by the first quarter of 2005. Once a player turned pro he or she could not compete in the major (amateur) tournaments. The December 26th Tsunami brought aidflows, and support from the IMF helped improve sentiment in the foreign exchange market. For 42 years professional and amateur tennis remained strictly separate. By December 2004, the country was heading for a balance of payments crisis, as the currency depreciated and reserves dwindled. The most notable of these early professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen.

The expansionary fiscal policy, coupled with loose monetary policy eventually drove inflation up to 18% by January 2005, as measured by the Sri Lanka Consumer Price Index. ("Cash and Carry") Pyle established the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences. To finance the expanded budget deficit arising from a range of subsidies and a public sector recruitment drive, the government eventually had to print Rs 65 bn (US$ 650 mn) or around 3% of GDP. In 1926 promoter C.C. In 2004 alone Sri Lanka spent approximately US$ 180 mn on a fuel subsidy, as fixing fuel prices was an election promise. Winning the Grand Slam, by capturing these four titles in one calendar year, is the highest ambition of most tennis players. But this policy of subsidizing imported commodities like fuel, fertilizer and wheat, soon unravelled the fiscal sector. Together these four events are called the Grand Slam (a term borrowed from bridge).

Its main theme to support the rural and suburban SMEs and protect the domestic economy from external influences, such as oil prices, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Open, the French Open and the Australian Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis. The new government stopped the privatization of state enterprises, reforms of state utilities such as power and petroleum and embarked on an unprecedented subsidy program called the Rata Perata economic program. Thus Wimbledon, the U.S. In April 2004, there was a sharp reversal in economic policy after the government headed by Ranil Wickremesinghe from the United National Party was defeated by a coalition made up of Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the left-nationalist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna called the United People's Freedom Alliance. It was also popular in France, where the French Open dates to 1891. The Colombo stock exchange reported the highest growth in Asia for 2003, and today Sri Lanka has the highest per capita income in South Asia. Tennis was for many years predominantly a sport of the English-speaking world, dominated by the United States, Britain and Australia.

Signs of recovery appeared after the government and the LTTE signed the 2002 ceasefire. The Davis Cup, an annual competition between national teams, dates to 1900. 2001 saw the first economic contraction in the country's history, due to a combination of power shortages, budgetary problems, the global slowdown, and continuing civil strife. National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887. The economy rebounded in 1997-2000, with average growth of 5.3%. The U.S. The GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5.5% during the early 1990s, until a drought and a deteriorating security situation lowered growth to 3.8% in 1996. Open, was first held in 1881 at Newport, Rhode Island.

By 1996, plantation crops made up only 20% of exports (compared with 93% in 1970), while textiles and garments 63%. National Men's Singles Championship, now the U.S. While tea and rubber are still important, the most dynamic sectors are now food processing, textiles and apparel, food and beverages, telecommunications, insurance, and banking. U.S. From independence, till 1977, it was a strongly socialist economy but since then it has been increasingly pursuing privatization, market-oriented policies and export-oriented trade. rules promulgated in 1924 have remained remarkably stable in the ensuing eighty years, the one major change being the addition of the tie-breaker system designed by James van Alen. Sri Lanka is historically famous for its cinnamon and tea (introduced by the British in the 19th century). The comprehensive I.L.T.F.

See Endemic Birds of the Indian Subcontinent for more information. In 1881 the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) was formed to standardize the rules and organize competitions. Sri Lanka is a centre of bird endemism. The first championships at Wimbledon, in London were played in 1877. The island has three biosphere reserves, Hurulu (established 1977), Sinharaja (established 1978), and Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN) (established 2004). In 1881 the desire to play tennis competitively led to the establishment of tennis clubs. Several preserves have been established to protect some of Sri Lanka's remaining natural areas. at the home of Mary Ewing Outerbridge on Staten Island, New York in 1874.

These forests have been largely cleared for agriculture, timber or grazing, and many of the dry evergreen forests have been degraded to thorn scrub, savanna, or thickets. It was first played in the U.S. The Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests are a tropical dry broadleaf forest ecoregion, which, like the neighboring East Deccan dry evergreen forests of India's Coromandel Coast, is characterized by evergreen trees, rather than the dry-season deciduous trees that predominate in most other tropical dry broadleaf forests. Tennis spread rapidly among the leisured classes in Britain and the United States. The north and east are considerably drier, lying in the rain shadow of the central highlands. Seeing the commercial potential of the game, Wingfield patented it in 1874, but never succeeded in enforcing his patent. Both these tropical moist forest ecoregions are very similar to those of India's Western Ghats. According to most tennis historians, modern tennis terminology also derives from this period, as Wingfield borrowed both the name and much of the French vocabulary of royal tennis and applied them to his new game:.

At higher elevations they transition to the Sri Lanka montane rain forests. He based the game on the older sport of indoor tennis or real tennis ("royal tennis"), which had been invented in 12th century France and was played by French aristocrats down to the time of the French Revolution. The southwest, where the influence of the moisture-bearing southwest monsoon is strongest, is home to the Sri Lanka lowland rain forests. In December 1873, Major Walter Clopton Wingfield devised a similar game for the amusement of his guests at a garden party on his estate at Nantclwyd, Wales. Its forests are among the most floristically rich in Asia and for some faunal groups, it has the world's highest density of species diversity. The Courier of 23 July 1884 recorded one of the first tennis tournaments, held in the grounds of Shrubland Hall (demolished 1948). Sri Lanka is one of the world's bio-diversity hot-spots. In 1874 they formed the Leamington Tennis Club, setting out the original rules of the game.

Other major cities include Jaffna, Galle, and Kandy. Wellesley Tomkins to found the first lawn tennis club in the world, and played the game on nearby lawns. The commercial capital is Colombo, but the administrative and legislative capital is at nearby Sri Jayewardanapura (Kotte). A. The lowest gravitational field on Earth lies just off the coast of Sri Lanka. Frederick Haynes and Dr. The climate is tropical, characterized by monsoons: the northeast monsoon lasts from December to March, the southwest June to October. Pereira joined with Dr.

Amongst these are Sri Pada and the highest point Pidurutalagala (also known as Mt Pedro), at 2,524 m. In 1872 both men moved to Leamington Spa, and with two doctors from the Warneford Hospital, played pelota on the lawn behind the Manor House Hotel (now residential apartments). The pear-shaped island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The game was played on a lawn in Edgbaston. According to temple records, this natural causeway was formerly complete, but was breached by a violent storm (probably a cyclone) in 1480. In 1859 Major Thomas Henry Gem, a solicitor, and his friend Batista Pereira, a Spanish merchant, who both lived in Birmingham, England played a game they named "pelota", after a Spanish ball game. Often referred to as Adam's Bridge, it is now mostly submerged, with only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level. Tennis has a long history (deriving from the 'jeu de paume'), but its establishment as the modern sport can be dated to two separate roots.

According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge to the Indian mainland, known as Rama's Bridge, was constructed during the time of Rama. system called the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP): 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, etc.) which is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. It is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, he or she is given a rating (examples from the U.S. The island of Sri Lanka lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal. Players may also be matched by their skill level.
. In the four grand slams, the draw (the maximum number of players allowed in a particular category of the tournament) is 128 people.

Sri Lanka consists of 8 provinces:. There are also tournaments for handicapped players. See also: Sri Lankan parliamentary election, 2004. Tournaments may be arranged for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. At the close of 2005, deep political unease and suspicion remained between the two factions. Common tournament configurations include men's singles, women's singles, doubles (where two players of the same sex play on each side), and mixed doubles (with a member of each sex per side). But these hopes were dashed by almost immediate accusations of bias and favouritism on the part of international aid agencies from both sides. Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players.

There were high hopes that the devastating Tsunami of December 2004 would force the government and Tamil rebels into a new, lasting dialogue to address the serious effects of the disaster on Sri Lanka as a whole. Finally, if an opponent is deep in his court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpected drop shot, softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. The LTTE boycotted the election, thereby preventing thousands of Tamils from voting, and so Wickremasinghe from taking power, whose election promises included a Federal state to the North and East. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, the opponent may then hit an overhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point. His narrow victory was engineered by the the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) who want Tamil Eelam to be an independent country. From a poor defensive position on the baseline, the lob can be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent's court to either enable the lobber to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent's head. Rajapaksa offers less autonomy than Wickremasinghe to the northeast, home to most of Sri Lanka's 3.2 million ethnic Tamils. The half-volley is made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, once again generally in the vicinity of the net.

He was previously Prime Minister in 2000. A volley is made in the air before the ball bounces, generally near the net, and is usually made with a stiff-wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. Ratnasiri Wickremanayake was appointed the 22nd Prime Minister on November 21, 2005, to fill the post vacated by Rajapaksa.
. Rajapaksa took oath as President on November 19, 2005. A small number of players, notably Monica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides. The Election was held on November 17, 2005, and Mahinda Rajapaksa was elected the fifth Executive President of Sri Lanka with a 50.29% of valid votes, compared to Ranil Wickremesinghe's 48.43%. Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a deadly accurate slice backhand with underspin through the 1950s and '60s.

Mahinda Rajapaksa was nominated the SLFP candidate and former Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe UNP candidate. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time, Don Budge, had a very powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and '40s that imparted topspin onto the ball. In August 2005, the Supreme Court ruled that Presidential Elections would be held in November 2005, resolving a long-running dispute on the length of President Kumaratunga's term. Two hands give the player more power, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Elections were held on April 02 and the new Parliament convened on April 23 and elected Mahinda Rajapaksa as the Prime Minister. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s as Björn Borg, Chris Evert, Jimmy Connors and later Mats Wilander used it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world's best players, including Andre Agassi and the Williams sisters. Parliament was dissolved on February 07, 2004 by President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s Australians Vivian McGrath and John Bromwich.

Since its independence in 1948, Sri Lanka has remained a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. For most of the 20th Century it was performed with one hand, using either an eastern or a continental grip. Parliament reserves the power to make all laws. It can be executed with either one or both hands. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve parliament any time after it has served for one year. The backhand, which is struck by swinging the racquet away from one's body in the direction of where the player wants the ball to go, is generally considered more difficult to master than the forehand. The primary modification is that the party that receives the largest number of valid votes in each constituency gains a unique "bonus seat" (see Hickman, 1999). In the 1940s and 50s the Ecuadorian/American player Pancho Segura used a two-handed forehand to devastating effect against larger, more powerful players, and many female and young players use the two-handed stroke today.

Members are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified proportional representation system by district to a six-year term. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racquet, but there have been fine players with two-handed forehands. The Sri Lankan Parliament is a unicameral 225-member legislature. Few top players used the western grip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, the western forehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. The President's deputy is the Prime Minister, who leads the ruling party in Parliament. For a number of years the small, apparently frail 1920s player Bill Johnston was considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using a western grip. The President appoints and heads a Cabinet of Ministers responsible to Parliament. The most important ones are the Continental, the Eastern, and the Western.

The incumbent may be removed from office by a two-thirds vote of Parliament, with the agreement by the Supreme Court. There are various grips for executing the forehand and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The President is responsible to Parliament for the exercise of duties in accordance with the Constitution and laws. Then swing up and across to get the right amount of spin. The President of the Republic is directly elected for a six-year term and serves as Head of State, Head of Government and Commander in Chief of the armed forces. The forehand is accomplished by starting the racquet above the height of the ball, and then dropping the racquet head behind your body. It was rumored that the LTTE themselves did the killing. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an ace.

In December 2005, following a brutal gang rape and murder of a Tamil woman (Ilayathambi Tharsini)(such incidents have happened before, including Krishanti Kumaraswamy), restive civilian groups likely encouraged and controlled by the LTTE carried out a series of attacks against Government forces in the North and East, and some unknown forces assassinated a pro-LTTE Tamil politician on Christmas eve in a Catholic church. Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. It has been alleged that only 17% of the relief aid has been spent on what it was intended for. A reverse spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right- or left-handedness, while a severely sliced serve is sometimes called a sidespin. Several Sinhala nationalist groups in the South challenged this pact and the Supreme Court declared that some articles of the pact were unconstitutional. The server may employ different types of serve: a flat, a top-spin, an American twist (or kick), a reverse spin, or a slice serve. On June 24, 2005, the Government signed the Post Tsunami Operational Management Structure (P-TOMS), a legal instrument for the Government to share aid with the LTTE. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net.

Over 40,000 people died on the island and many more are still missing. A serve (or, more formally, a service) in tennis is a shot to start a point. On December 26, 2004, an earthquake off the western coast of Sumatra created tsunamis that washed over the Eastern and Southern coasts of Sri Lanka. A competent tennis player has eight basic shots in his or her repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob. In April 2004, the Government of Ranil Wickramasinghe was ousted from Parliament and a coalition including several Sinhala nationalist groups opposed to negotiations with LTTE came to power. The first player or team to four points wins the game. No significant progress has been made to date. No-ad: You play through the match without any ads.

LTTE negotiators proposed an Interim Self Governing Authority, but the Government's response did not satisfy LTTE, and the peace process paused in late 2003. This is played like a regular tie-break but you go to ten instead of seven. 6 rounds of direct talks were held in several locations around the world, but no substantial steps were taken towards a political settlement to the conflict. It decides who wins instead of a third set. In early 2002 both the LTTE and the Government signed a Memorandum of Understanding and entered into a joint ceasefire. Super tie-break: This is played sometimes after players split sets (Each wins one set). At the end of 2001 a new Parliament was elected and Prime Minister Ranil Wickremasinghe declared a ceasefire, responding to the LTTE which had declared a ceasefire in December 2001. All other rules apply.

During her re-election rally, a suicide bomber killed 10 people, missing Kumaratunge. A pro set is first to 8 games instead of 6. In December 2000 President Kumaratunge was re-elected for her second term. Pro set: Instead of playing best out of three sets, players may play one pro set. This was the first time the country's cricket team had won the Cricket World Cup tournament. During highschool tennis team matches players may have to follow a few different rules:. In 1996 Sri Lanka became world champions in Cricket. The scoring is the same as a regular game.

Both the Sri Lanka Army and LTTE stood accused of gross human rights vioaltions including abduction, torture and extrajudicial executions during the conflict. For the single person, single court rules apply (such that the ball must be within the singles court lines) but on the side of the doubles team, doubles court rules apply (the alleys are considered in). By the mid 1990s, LTTE controlled much of the North and had set up a de facto state. This involves three players, with one person playing against a doubles team. Her initial attempts to negotiate with the LTTE failed and the war in the north and east continued with heavy casualties to sides. Another tennis format is called "Australian doubles" (Sometimes referred to as "Canadian doubles" or "Korean doubles"). In 1994 Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga, daughter of two previous Prime Ministers, was elected President. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only.

In 1993 Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa was killed in a similar manner during a May Day celebration in Colombo. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair user and a legs user, or for a wheelchair user to play against a legs user. In 1991 a LTTE suicide bomber killed former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in retaliation for the IPKF and the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and legs matches. Thousands of Muslims who had lived there for generations started a mass exodus to southern parts of the island. In wheelchair tennis, in which the players move in wheelchairs instead of using legs, an extra bounce is permitted. In 1990 the LTTE ordered all Muslims in the north to leave their homes. There is an exception for those who are only able to propel themselves using a foot.

Many also believe that the Indian army lost support because of acts of rape and extreme misconduct by Indian soldiers. The use of legs or feet is then prohibited, and the player is required to remain seated in the wheelchair. It is speculated that for this brief moment the LTTE was aided in a fight against the IPKF which drove out India. Wheelchair tennis can be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. It is alleged that the IPKF attempted to setup a longterm base of operations in Sri Lanka's north which frightened the Sri Lankan Government. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain) then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes. They had lost over 1,500 men. The first such change occurs after only seven games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up.

The 60,000-strong Indian force soon lost the support of both sides of the conflict and began a phased withdrawal, ending in 1990. Balls wear out quickly in serious play, and therefore are changed after every nine games. India, which had helped create and nurture the Tamil militant groups in the north had changed its stance, and in 1987 signed the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord and sent the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to the Jaffna peninsula. Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, or the need to chase an errant ball. While the Government dealt with the JVP rebellion, it enlisted the help of the Indian government to quell the Tamil separatist movement. This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (every two games), and a 120 second break is permitted between sets. 60,000 people vanished in the south during this period. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point.

His death ended the rebellion. Stamina is a relevant factor, so arbitrary delays are not permitted. At the end of 1989, JVP leader Rohana Wijeweera was arrested and days later shot while allegedly trying to escape. A tennis match is intended to be continuous. Both JVP and the Government engaged in the abduction, torture and murder of thousands of people. This is the case for many high school and college level matches. By 1988 it was a full-scale guerilla war. In some leagues players will make their own calls based upon the honor code.

In 1986, the JVP (banned in 1983), started their second struggle in the south for state power. The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority on the rules. One Tamil militant group, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), fought other groups, assassinated their leaders and assimilated their cadres into their ranks, and soon became the main group fighting the Army in the north and east. They have no adjudicative role. A 1985, round of peace talks in Thimphu, Bhutan failed, and the conflict intensified. Ball boys or girls (who are usually children) may be employed to retrieve balls, pass them to the players, and hand players their towels. Clashes between Tamil militants and the Government increased. There may also be a net umpire who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service.

Many thousands were forced to move from their homes in Colombo to the north and east. The chair umpire may be assisted by line umpires, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. In July 1983, called Black July, in response to the killing of 13 army soldiers in Jaffna, the Government instigated a week-long pogrom against the Tamil community in the south, killing thousands. The umpire has absolute authority to determine matters of fact. The Government sent the military to the Jaffna peninsula, increasing tensions. In serious play there is an officiating chair umpire (usually referred to as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. They called this homeland Tamil Eelam. See Tennis score for a description of both tie break scoring and its history.

By early 1980s, calls for a separate Tamil state had grown to the point where Tamil militants engaged in guerrilla attacks against the Government. A tiebreak game, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7-6. Jayewardene came to power and released imprisoned JVP members. A tiebreak game is sometimes played when the score for the set is presently 6-6. R. Should the player in the lead take any one of those points, he wins the game (set, etc.). In 1977, J. If the player who is serving has a score of 40-love, he has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.).

The insurrection was quelled by the government of Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike and JVP leaders were jailed for treason. For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40-15, he has a double game point (double set point, etc.). In 1971, the Marxist group Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) launched an insurrection in the south to gain state power. It may happen that the course of play has been such that the player who is in the lead in the game has more than one chance to score the winning point, even if his opponent should take the next point(s). Initially many of these were supported by the Indian Government which sought to appease Tamils in South India. It is of importance in professional tennis, since service breaks happen less frequently with professional players. Calls for a separate Tamil state in the north and east grew, and eventually several Tamil militant groups formed, particularly in the northern Jaffna peninsula. A break point occurs if the returner, not the server, has a game point.

Decades of tension between Tamils living primarily in the north and east, and the Sinhala majority in the south, led to widespread communal riots in the 1950s to 1970s targeting Tamil communities and economic interests in many parts of the island. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). This led to unrest among Tamils, whose cultural identity was threatened. A game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game (the smallest unit of play) needs only one more point to win the game. The 1956 Sinhala Only Act made Sinhala the sole official language, forcing Tamil-speakers to learn it. The running score of each game is described in a manner particular to tennis: scores of zero to three points are described as "love" (or "zero"), "fifteen", "thirty", and "forty" respectively. Post-independence governments implemented a series of pro-Sinhala measures, supporting the Sinhala majority. A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving, and is won by the first player to have won at least four points and at least two points more than his opponent.

Independent Sri Lanka is famed for it's remarkable increase in human development, notably life expectency, infant mortality, and literacy, which lead the country to be seen as somewhat of a model for third world development. If a tiebreak is played, the set is determined by the winner of the next game, and is scored as 7-6. In 1982, the legislative and judicial capital was moved from Colombo to nearby Sri Jayewardanapura Kotte. It has become common, however, to play a one game tiebreak when each player has won six games. In 1972, the country became a republic, free of the last vestiges of colonial domination; the name was changed to Sri Lanka. Typically, a player wins a set when he wins at least six games and at least two games more than his opponent. The flag of the last king of Kandy was proclaimed the National Flag with few minor changes (added orange and green vertical bars to represent the Tamils and Muslims). A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria.

The first prime minister was Don Stephen Senanayake, while Sir Henry Monck-Mason Moore became Governor-General, the Queen's nominal representative. Some matches may consist of five sets (the winner being the first to win three sets), while most matches are three sets (the winner being the first to win two sets). As Ceylon [1], it became a dominion in the British Commonwealth in 1948. The match ends as soon as this winning condition is met. The British used Sri Lanka as a base for operations in the Pacific. Matches consist of an odd number of multiple sets, the match winner being the player who wins more than half of the sets. A month later, a Sri Lankan garrison on the Cocos Islands mutinied, but the rebellion was put down. A set consists of a number of games, and games, in turn, consist of points.

Extensive damage was caused to shipping and the Royal Navy lost two cruisers, an aircraft carrier and an Australian destroyer. A tennis match usually comprises one to five sets. Japan bombed Sri Lanka, but there were few casualties. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point. During World War II pro-independence leaders were jailed. It then travels back over the net and bounces in the court on the opposite side. The struggle for independence started in the 1930s, when the Youth Leagues opposed the 'Ministers' Memorandum' which asked the colonial authority to increase the powers of the board of ministers, rather than seeking independence. A legal return consists of the player or team hitting the ball exactly once before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures.

After the fall of Kandy kingdom in 1815, the British unified it with the 'low country' Kingdoms on the island under one rule for administrative purposes in 1818. A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. Great Britain replaced the Dutch in 1796, and the coastal areas became a crown colony in 1802. If the second service is also faulty, this is a double fault and the receiver wins the point. During Portuguese and Dutch rule of coastal areas, the interior, hilly region of the island remained independent, with its capital at Kandy city. If the first service is otherwise faulty in any way, the serving player has a second attempt at service. The Dutch followed in the 17th century. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service court, this is a let service, which is void.

They defeated both coastal kingdoms (Yarlpanam and Kotte) in the 16th century. In a legal service, the ball travels over the net (without touching it) and into the diagonally opposite service court. In 1517, the Portuguese established the fort and trading post Colombo. When the receiver is ready, the server will serve. When the Portuguese arrived, the island consisted of several autonomous kingdoms under the nominal suzerainty of the king at Kotte, such as those of Yarlpanam (Anglicised Jaffna) in the north and Kandy in the central hills. The receiver may stand anywhere on his side of the net, usually behind the diagonally opposite service box. It was also invaded and ruled by Kings of Kalinga (present-day Indian state Orissa) and Malay Straights. For each point, the server stands behind his baseline, between the center mark and the sideline.

South Indian kingdoms invaded Sri Lanka on a number of occasions and so the island was ruled for extended periods by Tamil dynasties such as the Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras and Pallavas. Service alternates between the two halves of the court. Parakramabahu IV, who ruled from Kotte, was the last Sri Lankan king to rule over the entire island, although the other kingdoms remained under the nominal suzerainty of the High King at Kotte. One player is designated the server, and the opposing player, or in doubles one of the opposing players, is the receiver. After the Polonnaruwa era, the capital moved often, and the island was rarely unified. The players (or teams) stand on opposite sides of the net. 1070 to 1200). Open and Australian Open use hardcourts (though they used grass courts and clay courts in the past), the French Open is played on clay, and Wimbledon is played on grass.

1000 AD) and Polonnaruwa (c. Of the Grand Slam tournaments, the U.S. 200 BC to c. Grass courts add an additional variable, with bounces depending on how healthy the grass is and how recently it has been mowed. Buddhism and a sophisticated system of irrigation became the pillars of Sinhalese civilization (200 BC-1200 AD) that flourished in the north-central Sri Lanka, with capitals at Anuradhapura (from c. Hardcourts and grass are "fast" surfaces, where fast, low bounces keep rallies short, and powerful, hard-serving and hard-hitting players have an advantage. Buddhism arrived from the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BC thanks to Arahath Mahinda Thero, missionary of Indian Emperor Ashoka, and spread rapidly. On clay courts, line calls are easily reviewable because the ball leaves a visible mark.

Given the island's proximity to the Deccan Plateau, people of different ethnicities must have traveled to and from it throughout human history. Clay courts are considered "slow," meaning that the balls lose speed as they hit the court and bounce relatively high, making it more difficult for a player to hit an unreturnable shot, called a winner. Its origins are not dated, but must post-date the arrival of the Dravidian language group in South India sometime in prehistory. Hardcourt encompasses many different surfaces, ranging from old-fashioned concrete courts to coated asphalt to wooden gymnasium surfaces to artificial grass similar to AstroTurf. Tamil presence is noted throughout the country's written history. Each surface provides a difference in the speed and bounce of the ball. However, archaic Sinhalese langauge is closer to Prakrits used in northwest India, indicating an origin in the present western coastal Indian state Gujarat. There are three main types of courts, depending on the materials used for the court surface.

Legend states that king Vijaya came to Sri Lanka from Orissa in northeast India. The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts, and 3 feet (914 mm) high in the center. Archaeological excavations at Anuradhapura show a settlement from the 10th century BC. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It also describes a minister of Vijaya, Anuradha, who established the village Anuradhagamma which later became Anuradhapura and became the capital of Sri Lanka centuries later. Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. This may refer to a specific group of Prakrit-speaking people, and not necessarily the first such group to arrive. The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and its width is 27 feet (8.23 m) for singles matches and 36 feet (10.97 m) for doubles matches.

The Mahavansa describes the Sinhalese kingdom started by king Vijaya and his followers. Tennis is played on a rectangular flat surface, usually of grass, clay, or concrete (hard court). The theory of Mahavamsa is a contraversial subject and a debate continues as to whether some aspects of it are factual. . Archaeological evidence supplements the Mahavamsa as it places people (perhaps the indigenous Yakkas and Nagas of the chronicle) of indistinguishable racial origin living in the north-central Sri Lanka from the 10th century BC onwards with knowledge of agriculture, metallurgy, and livestock breeding. Along with its millions of players, millions of people follow tennis as a spectator sport, especially the four Grand Slam tournaments. The Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa give a near-continuous written history of the island and is also the primary source for the early chronology of India, especially for the synchronity with Alexander the Great and the Greeks. Its rules have remained remarkably unchanged since the 1920s.

Prior to 1972, Sri Lanka was known by a variety of names; the best known is Ceylon. Tennis is now an Olympic sport that is played at all levels of society and by all ages in many countries around the world. In 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. Originating in England in the late 19th Century, the game spread first throughout the English-speaking world, particularly among the upper classes. In 1972, the official name of the nation that governs the island was changed to the Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka (ශ්‍රී ලංකා in Sinhala / இலங்கை in Tamil). In some places, tennis is still called lawn tennis, to distinguish it from real tennis (also known as royal tennis or court tennis), an older form of the game that is played indoors on a very different kind of a court. . Player(s) use a stringed racquet to strike a hollow rubber ball covered in felt over a net into the opponent's court.

The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (ශ්රී ලංකා in Sinhala / Sri Lanka in Tamil) (known as Ceylon before 1972) is a tropical island nation off the southeast coast of the Indian subcontinent, about 30 km south of India. Tennis is a racquet sport played between either two players ("singles") or two teams of two players ("doubles"). The chronology of early India depends upon that of the Mahawamsa. The convention of numbering scores "15," "30" and "40" comes from quinze, trente and quarante, which to French ears makes a euphonious sequence. The Buddhist scriptures were first committed to writing at Aluvihare in Sri Lanka. Love may come from l'oeuf, the egg, a reference to the egg-shaped zero symbol; however, since "un oeuf" is more commonly used, the etymology remains in question. Winner of the Cricket World Cup in 1996. Deuce comes from à deux le jeu, meaning "to both is the game" (that is, the two players have equal scores).

First country to have a wildlife sanctuary [2]. Racquet comes from raquette, which derives from the Arabic rakhat, meaning the palm of the hand. World's leading exporter of cinnamon; exported to Egypt as early as 1400 BC. Tennis comes from the French tenez, the imperative form of the verb tenir, to hold: This was a cry used by the player serving in royal tennis, meaning "I am about to serve!" (rather like the cry "Fore!" in golf). World's leading exporter of tea; Ceylon tea is of the finest quality in the world. Hardcourt. Sri Lanka celebrated 80 years in Broadcasting on December 16th 2005. Grass court.

First country in South Asia to start radio broadcasting with Radio Ceylon. Clay court. Longest period of continuous multi party democracy by a non western country (from 1931-present). First country in the World to have a female prime minister (Sirimavo Bandaranaike). Western.

Uva. Southern. Sabaragamuwa. North Western.

North Eastern. North Central. Central. Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka.