Shark

Sharks are a group (superorder Selachimorpha) of fish, with a full cartilaginous skeleton, a streamlined body plan, with normally 5, but up to 7 (depending on species) gill slits along the side of, or beginning slightly behind, the head (in some species, a modified slit called a spiracle, is located just behind the eye), dermal denticles covering the body to protect from damage, parasites and improve fluid dynamics, and rows of replaceable teeth in the mouth.

Characteristics

Sharks have keen olfactory senses, with some species able to detect as little as one part per million of blood in seawater. They are even more attracted to the chemicals found in the gut of many species, and often linger near or in sewage outfalls. Some species, such as Nurse sharks, have external barbels that greatly increase their ability to sense prey. The short duct between the anterior and posterior nasal openings are not fused like in bony fish.

Shark eyes are similar to the eyes of other vertebrates, including similar lenses, corneas and retinas, though their eyesight is well adapted to their marine environment with the help of a tissue called tapetum lucidum. This tissue is behind the retina and reflects light back to the retina, thereby increasing visibility in the dark waters. The effectiveness of the tissue varies, with some sharks having stronger nocturnal adaptations. Sharks have eyelids, but they do not blink because the surrounding water cleans their eyes. To protect their eyes some have nictitating membranes. This membrane covers the eyes during predation, and when it is being attacked. Sharks generally rely on their superior sense of smell to find prey, but once they are close they also use the lateral lines running along their sides to sense movement in the water and also employ special sensory pores on their heads (Ampullae of Lorenzini) to detect electrical pulses created by the muscles of prey. Their teeth are not attached to the jaw, but embedded in their flesh, and in many species are constantly replaced throughout the shark's life. The lower teeth are primarily used for holding prey, while the top are used for cutting into it. (Gilbertson, 7.3)

There are exceptions to the "large", "marine" (as in 'ocean-going') and "predatory" portions of the characterization. Sharks include everything from the hand-sized Pygmy Shark, a deep sea species, to the Whale Shark, the largest fish (although sharks are not closely related to bony fish) which is known to grow to a maximum length of approximately 15m (49 feet) and which, like the great whales, feeds only on plankton. Although not unique among sharks, the Bull Shark is the better known of several species to regularly swim in both salt and fresh water environments (most famously in Lake Nicaragua, in Central America) and in most deltas. A few of the larger species, the Mako and White Shark, are mildly homeothermic, able to maintain their body temperature at a level above the ocean's temperature. This is possible because of the presence of the rete mirabile, a counter current exchange mechanism that reduces the loss of body heat.

Like other fish, sharks extract their oxygen from seawater as it passes over their gills. Due to their size and the nature of their metabolism, sharks have a higher demand for oxygen than most fish and they cannot rely on ambient water current to provide an adequate supply of oxygenated water. If a shark were to stop swimming, the necessary water circulation for respiration would become too low and the animal could suffocate. Some sharks, like the Blacktip Reef Shark and Nurse Shark, can pump water over their gills as they rest. There are also known instances, such as in certain caves along the Yucatan coast, where sharks of varying species rest on the cave floors and allow the fresh water outflow to pass over them. The outflow is strong enough to allow for respiration, and it is believed that the reason for this behaviour is that the fresh water helps remove certain parasites. Also, unlike other fish, sharks do not have gas-filled swim bladders, but rather rely on an oil-filled liver for (limited) buoyancy, so they sink when they stop swimming; a resting shark always sinks to the sea bed. Sand tiger sharks are known to gulp air at the surface and store it in their stomach to provide buoyancy.

Unlike bony fish, the sharks have a complex dermal corset arranged as a helical network and made of flexible collagenous fibres surrounding their body. This works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles. The sharks saves more energy while swimming this way than if they didn't have their collagenous corset. A similar arrangement of collagen fibres has been discovered in dolphins and squids.

Their dermal teeth gives them hydrodynamic advantages as they are reducing the turbulence when swimming.

A shark, if inverted, enters a natural state of paralysis. Researchers use this condition for handling sharks safely.

A popular myth is that sharks are immune to disease and cancer, however, this is untrue and there are both diseases and parasites that affect sharks. The evidence that sharks are at least resistant to cancer and disease is mostly anecdotal and there have been few, if any, scientific or statistical studies that have shown sharks to have heightened immunity to disease. [1]

Urine in sharks accumulates in the blood and is then secreted through the skin.

Their upper jaw are not attached to the skull.

Shark attacks

The fear of sharks has been fueled worldwide by a few unusual instances of unprovoked attack, such as the Jersey Shore Shark Attacks of 1916, and by sensationalized fiction and film, such as the Jaws series. While sharks cause a few dozen human deaths annually, it is relatively not a large number (e.g. several hundred people die anually struck by lightning; however, lightning may strike anywhere worldwide, whereas only a very small part of human population is susceptible to shark attacks, i.e. only those people who enter the water in the areas populated by sharks).

Contrary to popular belief, only a few sharks are dangerous to humans. Out of the more than 360 described species of sharks, only 4 have been confirmed to have killed humans: the Great White, Tiger, Bull, and Oceanic Whitetip sharks. These sharks, being large, powerful predators perfectly capable of eating humans, will sometimes attack and kill people, but all of the above sharks, even the Great White, have been filmed in open water, with no cage, time and time again, without incident. There are many theories about why sharks attack people. Some claim that the shark is confusing a human for a seal or other prey animal; this would be typical in the case of an attack against a surfer. Often the shark that attacks a human will make only one bite and then go away. This behaviour has many possible explanations, one being that humans don't taste good (or at least, as good), or are lacking the necessary fat, and another being that sharks normally make one swift attack, and then retreat and wait for the victim to die, or exhaust itself, before it comes back to feed. This protects the shark from retribution from a wounded and aggressive target, but also allows humans the time to get out of the water and survive.

A number of other species (perhaps 10 - 15) have threatened, attacked, and/or bitten (but not killed) humans without being obviously provoked. This group contains the Mako, Hammerhead, Gray Reef, Black Tip Reef, Lemon, Silky and Blue sharks. These sharks are also large, powerful predators which can be provoked simply by being in the water at the wrong time and place, but they are normally considered less dangerous to divers and swimmers than the previous group. In most cases, if a person moves away calmly, or remains still, they will be ignored. Many shark species are known to "display" when feeling threatened, and it is ill-advised to remain in the vicinity at such a time as this would generally be considered enough provocation to warrant an attack.

A few other shark species do attack people every year, producing wounds that can potentially kill, but this occurs either specifically because they have been provoked, or through mistaken identity due to water conditions or the like.

Speed

In general, sharks swim ("cruise") at an average speed of five miles (8.25 kilometers) per hour, but when feeding or attacking, the average shark will reach speeds upwards of twelve miles (19.25 kilometers) per hour. One exception to this generality is the Mako shark, whose speed may range upwards of thirty miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Mako shark is generally considered to be the fastest species of shark, and may be the fastest of all fish (for short bursts). Another exception, the Great White, the largest actively predatory shark, is capable of surprising bursts of speed. These exceptions may be due to the "warm-blooded", or homeothermic, nature of their physiology.

Etymology

Until the late 16th century sharks were usually referred to in the English language as sea-dogs. The name "Shark" first came into use around the late 1560s to refer to the large sharks of the Caribbean Sea, and later to all sharks in general. The name may have been derived from the Mayan word for shark, xoc, pronounced "shock" or "shawk". The collective noun for a group of sharks is a shiver.

Classification

Sharks belong to the superorder Selachimorpha in the subclass Elasmobranchii in the class Chondrichthyes. The Elasmobranchii also include rays and skates; the Chondrichthyes also include Chimaeras. It is currently thought that the sharks form a polyphyletic group: in particular, some sharks are more closely related to rays than they are to some other sharks.

There are more than 360 described species of sharks.

The first sharks appeared in the oceans 400 to 350 million years ago. Most of the species we know today are as old as the Jurassic period. There are eight orders of sharks, listed below in roughly their evolutionary relationship from more primitive to more modern species:

• Hexanchiformes: Examples from this group include the cow sharks, frilled shark and even a shark that looks on first inspection to be a marine snake.
• Squaliformes: Examples from this group include the bramble sharks, dogfish sharks and roughsharks.
• Pristiophoriformes: These are the sawsharks, with an elongated, toothed snout that they use for slashing the fishes that they subsequently eat.
• Squatiniformes: Angel sharks.
• Heterodontiformes: They are commonly referred to as the bullhead or horn sharks.
• Orectolobiformes: They are commonly referred to as the carpet sharks, including zebra sharks, nurse sharks, wobbegongs and the largest of all fishes, the whale shark.
• Carcharhiniformes: They are commonly referred to as the groundsharks, and some of the species include the blue, tiger, bull, reef and oceanic whitetip sharks (collectively called the requiem sharks) along with the houndsharks, catsharks and hammerhead sharks. They are distinguished by an elongated snout and a nictitating membrane which protects the eyes during an attack.
• Lamniformes: They are commonly referred to as the mackerel sharks. They include the goblin shark, basking shark, megamouth shark, the thresher sharks, mako shark and great white shark. They are distinguished by their large jaws and ovoviviparous reproduction.

The Lamniformes include the extinct Megalodon (Carcharodon megalodon), which like all extinct sharks is only known from its teeth (the only bone found in these cartilaginous fishes, and therefore the only fossils produced). A reproduction of the jaw was based on some of the largest teeth (up to almost 17 cm (7 inches) in length) and suggested a fish that could grow 80 feet (25 metres) long to 100 feet (30.5 metres). The jaw was realized to be inaccurate, and estimates revised downwards to around 43 feet (13 metres) to 52 feet (15.9 metres).

Reproduction

The sex of a shark can be easily determined. The males all have their pelvic fins modified into a pair of claspers. The name is somewhat misleading as they are not used to hold on to the female, but are the shark's version of the mammalian penis. (As a side note, Class Chondrichthyes has the distinction of having the animal with the largest intromittent organ — an organ used for transmitting sperm — in relation to body length. This animal is the clearnose skate (Raja eglanteria) which has claspers of 15 cm (6 in) in size on a fish that reaches 1 m (3 feet) in length.)

Mating has rarely been observed in sharks. The smaller catsharks often mate with the male curling around the female. In the less flexible species the two sharks swim parallel to each other while the male inserts the clasper into the female's oviduct. Many females in the larger species have bite marks that appear to be a result of a male grasping her to maintain position. The bite marks can also come from the courtship of the sharks. The male may come and bite the edges of the female to show his interest. In some species, females have evolved thicker skin to withstand the sharks bite marks during mating.

Sharks have a much different reproductive strategy than most fishes. Instead of producing huge numbers of eggs and larvae (99.9% of which never reach sexual maturity in fishes that use this strategy) sharks normally produce around a dozen pups, some species up to 70-80 and some as few as 2-3. These pups are either protected by egg cases or born live. No known sharks provide parental protection for their young, but females have a hormone that is released into their blood during the pupping season that apparently keeps them from feeding.

There are three ways in which shark pups are born:

• Oviparity - Some sharks lay eggs. In most of these species, the developing embryo is protected by an egg case with the consistency of leather. Some of these cases are corkscrewed into crevices for protection. When they wash up empty on beaches, the egg cases are sometimes called mermaid's purses. Oviparous sharks include the horn shark, catsharks, Port Jackson Sharks, and the swell shark.
• Viviparity - These sharks actually maintain a placental link to the developing young, more analogous to mammals than other fishes. The young are born alive and fully functional. Hammerheads, the requiem sharks (like the bull and tiger sharks), the basking shark and the smooth dogfishes fall into this category. Dogfishes also have the longest known gestation period of any shark, 22 months. The blue shark produces the most young of sharks that have had the number of pups recorded, the maximum reported being 82.
• Ovoviviparity - Most sharks utilize this method. The young are nourished by the yolk of their egg and by fluids secreted by glands in the walls of the oviduct. The eggs hatch within the oviduct, and the young continue to be nourished by the remnants of the yolk and the oviduct's fluids. As in viviparity, the young are born alive and fully functional. Sometimes they are functional even before being born, as some species practice oophagy, where the first to hatch eat the remaining eggs in the oviduct. Sand tigers, makos, threshers, porbeagles and possibly great whites have oophagous young. The survival strategy for the species that do this is that the young are able to grow to an even larger size before being born. The whale shark is now considered to be in this category after having been classified as oviparous for a long time. Whale shark eggs found are now thought to have been aborted. Most ovoviviparous sharks generally give birth in sheltered areas, including bays, river mouths, and shallow reefs. They choose such areas mainly because of the protection from predators (mainly other sharks) and the abundance of food.

Shark senses

Sharks have two senses that many animals do not have:

• Electroreception: The Ampullae of Lorenzini are small pits in the head that detect electricity. The shark has the greatest electricity sensitivity known in all animals. This sense is used to find prey hidden in sand in bottom feeding sharks, by detecting the nerve impulses. It is this sense that sometimes confuses a shark into attacking a boat: when the metal interacts with salt water, sharks can detect the resultant electrical charge from over one mile away.
• Lateral line - This system is found in most fishes, including sharks. It is used to detect motion or 'sound' in the water. The shark uses this to detect other organisms moving, especially wounded fish. The shark can 'hear' frequencies in the range of 25 to 50 Hz using this sense.

Shark fishery

Every year, 100 million sharks are killed by people in commercial and recreational fishing. In the past they were fished simply for the sport of landing a good fighting fish (mako sharks for instance). Sharkskin is covered with dermal denticles, which are similar to tiny teeth. It was used for purposes similar to sandpaper. Other sharks are hunted for food (Atlantic thresher, mako and others), and some species for other products.

Sharks are a common seafood in many places around the world, including Japan and Australia. In the Australian State of Victoria shark is the most commonly used fish in fish and chips, in which fillets are battered and deep fried or crumbed and grilled and served alongside chips. When served in fish and chip shops, it is called 'flake'.

Sharks are often killed for shark fin soup, in which many sharks are hunted for their fins, which are cut off with a hot metal blade before the live animal is tossed back into the water. There have been cases where hundreds of de-finned animals were swept up on local beaches without any way to convey themselves back into the sea. Conservationists have campaigned for changes in the law to make finning illegal in the U.S.

Sharks generally reach sexual maturity slowly and produce very few offspring in comparison to other fishes that are harvested. This has caused concern among biologists regarding the increase in effort applied to catching sharks over time, and many species are considered to be threatened.

Some organizations, such as the Shark Trust, campaign to limit shark fishing.

Sharks in mythology

Sharks figure prominently in the Hawaiian mythology. There are stories of shark men who have shark jaws on their back. They could change form between shark and human at any time desired, and for any length. A common theme in the stories was that the shark men would warn beach goers that sharks were in the waters. The beach goers would laugh and ignore the warnings and go swimming, subsequently being eaten by the same shark man who warned them not to enter the water.

Hawaiian mythology also contained many shark gods. They believed that sharks were guardians of the sea, and called them Aumakua. A listing of them follows:

• Kamohoali'i - The most well known and revered of the shark gods, he was the older and favored brother of Pele, and helped and journeyed with her to Hawaii. He was able to take on all human and fish forms. A summit cliff on the crater of Kilauea is considered to be one of his most sacred spots. At one point he had a he'iau (temple or shrine) dedicated to him on every piece of land that jutted into the ocean on the island of Moloka'i.
• Ka'ahupahau - This goddess was born human, with her defining characteristic being her red hair. She was later transformed into shark form and was believed to protect the people who lived on O'ahu from sharks. She was also believed to live near Pearl Harbor.
• Kaholia Kane - This was the shark god of the ali'i Kalaniopu'u and he was believed to live in a cave at Puhi, Kaua'i.
• Kane'apua - Most commonly, he was the brother of Pele and Kamohoali'i. He was a trickster god who performed many heroic feats, including the calming of two legendary colliding hills that destroyed canoes trying to pass between.
• Kawelomahamahai'a - Another human, he was transformed into a shark.
• Keali'ikau 'o Ka'u - He was the cousin of Pele and son of Kua. He was called the protector of the Ka'u people. He had an affair with a human girl, who gave birth to a helpful green shark.
• Kua - This was the main shark god of the people of Ka'u, and believed to be their ancestor.
• Kuhaimoana - He was the brother of Pele and lived in the Ka'ula islet. He was said to be 30 fathoms (55 m) long and was the husband of Ka'ahupahau.
• Kauhuhu - He was a fierce king shark that lived in a cave in Kipahulu on the island of Maui. He sometimes moved to another cave on the windward side of island of Moloka'i.
• Kane-i-kokala - A kind shark god that saved shipwrecked people by taking them to shore. The people who worshipped him feared to eat, touch or cross the smoke of the kokala, his sacred fish. The Basking shark is a shark that will never eat a human. The black tip diving shark will can dive up to 250 feet down.

In other Pacific Ocean cultures, Dakuwanga was a shark god who was the eater of lost souls.

In ancient Greece, shark flesh was forbidden to be eaten at women's festivals.