Referendum

In addition, under the 1972 Local Government Act, there is a little-known provision under which non-binding local referendums on any issue can be called by small groups of voters. This allows them to be trained to behave in a way that is not specifically the most natural to their breed; nevertheless, the accumulated experience of thousands of years shows that some combinations of nature and nurture are quite daunting, for instance, training whippets to guard flocks of sheep. As of 2004 the British government is currently committed to holding a UK-wide referendum on the new EU Constitution, as well as on any plan to adopt the euro as the UK's currency or to change from 'first past the post' to an alternative electoral system. Of course, dogs in general possess a significant ability to modify their behavior according to experience, including adapting to the behavior of their "pack leaders"—again, humans. There have also been referendums held at the local level on proposals for directly elected local mayors. The example of canine neoteny goes even further, in that the various breeds are differently neotenized according to the type of behavior that was selected. However many referendums have been held in individual parts of the United Kingdom on issues relating to devolution in Scotland and Wales, and the status of Northern Ireland. Compared to wolves, many adult dog breeds retain such juvenile characteristics as soft fuzzy fur, round torsos, large heads and eyes, ears that hang down rather than stand erect, etc.; characteristics which are shared by most juvenile mammals, and therefore generally elicit some degree of protective and nurturing behavior cross-species from most adult mammals, including humans, who term such characteristics "cute" or "appealing".

Referendums are rare and only once has a referendum proposal been put to the entire electorate of the UK; this was a referendum in 1975 on membership of the European Economic Community. This paedomorphic selection naturally results in a retention of juvenile physical characteristics as well. Owing to the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty a binding referendum cannot be held in the United Kingdom (UK). This is true of many domesticated animals, including human beings themselves, who have many characteristics similar to young bonobo. Even referendums on tax cuts are often not passed. As with many species, the young wolves are more social and less dominant than adults; therefore, the selection for these characteristics, whether deliberate or inadvertent, is more likely to result in a simple retention of juvenile characteristics into adulthood than to generate a complex of independent new changes in behavior. Citizens' initiatives are usually not passed. This rapid evolution of dogs from wolves is an example of neoteny or paedomorphism.

The decisions made in referendums tend to be conservative. Deliberately crossing two or more breeds is also a manner of establishing new breeds. However, the percentage of voters is generally very low, about 20 to 30 percent unless there is an election. However, without genetic testing of the parents, the crosses can sometimes end up inheriting genetic defects that occur in both parental breeds. Elections are as well often combined with referendums. Such deliberate crosses may display hybrid vigor and other desirable traits, but can also lack one or more of the desired traits of their parents, such as temperament or a particular color or coat. The votes on referendums are always held on a Sunday, typically three or four times a year, and in most cases, the votes concern several referendums at the same time, often at different political levels (federal, cantonal, municipal). Sometimes mixed-breed dogs are deliberately bred, for example, the Cockapoo, a mixture of Cocker Spaniel and Miniature Poodle.

The referendums slow politics down. Mixed breeds, or dogs with no purebred ancestry, are not inherently "better" or "worse" than purebred dogs as companions, pets, working dogs, or competitors in dog sports. In many cases, the mere threat of a facultative referendum or of an initiative is enough to make the parliament adjust a law. Mixed-breed dogs or Mongrels are dogs that do not belong to specific breeds, being mixtures of two or more in variant percentages. The possibility of facultative referendums forces the parliament to search for a compromise between the major interest groups. In February 2004, the Canine Studies Institute in Aurora, Ohio, arranged recognized breeds of dogs into ten categories. There are two types of referendums:. The behavior and appearance of a dog of a particular breed can be predicted fairly accurately, while mixed-breed dogs show a broader range of innovative appearance and behavior.

They are a central feature of Swiss political life. These problems are not limited to purebred dogs and can affect mixed-breed populations. In Switzerland, there are binding referendums at federal, cantonal and municipal level. Even prize-winning purebred dogs sometimes possess crippling genetic defects due to inbreeding. Two, in 1957 and 1980, were multiple choice referendums. These considerations come into play among breeders who enter their dogs in dog shows. All have been non-binding, consultative referendums. Other organizations define a breed more loosely, such that an individual may be considered of one breed as long as 75% of its parentage is of that breed.

Since the introduction of parliamentary democracy six referendums have been held in Sweden: the first was on prohibition in 1922 and the most recent on euro membership in 2003. Dogs that are bred in this manner often end up with severe health or behavioural problems. The Constitution of Sweden provides for both binding and non-binding referendums. Some groups use a definition that ultimately requires extreme inbreeding to qualify due to the low gene pool. Any citizen entitled to vote in an election to the Chamber of Deputies may participate in a referendum. The definition of a dog breed is a matter of some controversy. It is forbidden to call a referendum regarding financial laws or laws relating to pardons or the ratification of international treaties. Despite these differences, dogs are able to distinguish dogs from other kinds of animal.

The referendum is valid only if at least a majority of electors goes to the polling station. Because of this, some breeds are highly specialized, and there is extraordinary morphological diversity across different breeds. A referendum can be called in order to abrogate totally or partially a law, but only at the request of 500,000 electors or five regional councils. Many of these are the product of a deliberate process of artificial selection. The constitution of Italy provides for binding referendums. A few basic breed types have evolved gradually during the domesticated dog's relationship with man over the last 10,000 or more years, but most modern breeds are of relatively recent derivation. However such a referendum can only take place in rare circumstances and so none has yet occurred. Many dogs, especially outside the United States and Western Europe, belong to no recognized breed.

The constitution also provides for a referendum on an ordinary law known as the 'ordinary referendum'. As all dog breeds have been derived from mixed-breed dog populations, the term "purebred" has meaning only with respect to a certain number of generations. However the role of the president is merely ceremonial and she cannot refuse to sign an amendment into law that has been legitimately approved in a referendum. There are numerous dog breeds, over 800 being recognized by various kennel clubs worldwide. Constitutional amendments are first adopted by both Houses of the Oireachtas (parliament), then submitted to a referendum and finally signed into law by the President. In a number of countries around the world, apart from being kept as pets, certain breeds of dogs are slaughtered as a source of meat and specifically raised on farms for that purpose. In the Republic of Ireland it is mandatory that every constitutional amendment be approved by referendum and since 1937 over twenty constitutional referendums have occurred. The relationship is theorized to have developed in this way.

The current Constitution of Ireland was adopted by plebiscite on 1 July 1937. With their sharp senses, they would also be valuable as an alarm against marauding predators. It was later modified to provides for the establishment of a committee by the parliament to be elected in December of 2005 to consider changes to the constitution in 2006. Canines would have been beneficial by chasing away other vermin or scavengers. The coalition was designed to shift crucial decisions about government, the judiciary and human rights to a future national assembly. Canines who attacked people or their children were likely killed or driven away, while those more friendly animals survived. The Iraq referendum was voted on by the Iraqi people in on 15 October 2005, two years after the invasion of by the United States led coaliton to oust Saddam Hussein. Wild canines who scavenged around human habitations received more food than their more skittish or fearful counterparts.

The TCE has both been rejected by proponents of national sovereignty and by the left-wing liberal anti-globalization movement in France. It is also now generally believed that initial domestication was through mutual desire. The other EU countries, apart from Spain and Luxembourg, approved it during parliamentary votes. Domestication of a wild dog may occur within one or two human generations with deliberate selective breeding. The "Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe" (TCE) was rejected in France and Netherlands in popular referendums. Current research indicates that domestication, or the attributes of a domesticated animal, can occur much more quickly than previously believed.
. While some dog breeds possess one of these characteristics, they rarely possess both.

The 1980 Quebec referendum and 1995 Quebec referendum on the secession of Québec are notable cases. Wolves typically have a "brush tail" and erect ears. Referendums can also occur at the provincial level. The phenotypic characteristic that distinguish a wolf from a dog are tenuous. Although the Constitution of Canada does not expressly require that amendments be approved by referendum some argue that, in light of the precedent set by the Charlottetown Accord referendum, this may have become an unwritten convention. The general reproductive isolation which is required to define dogs and wolves as separate species is purely a result of lack of opportunity, stemming from a general mutual unfamiliarity, suspicion, mistrust, and fear. The most recent was a referendum in 1992 on a package of proposed constitutional measures known as the Charlottetown Accord. Additionally, unintentional crossbreeding occurs simply because dogs and wolves live in the same environment.

Referendums are rare in Canada and only three have ever occurred at the federal level. This interbreeding still occurs with dogs living in the Arctic region, where the attributes of the wolf that enable survival in a hostile environment are valued by humans. Due to the specific mention of referenda in the Australian constitution, non-constitutional referenda are usually termed plebescites in Australia. The Eastern Timber Wolf is a direct ancestor to most, if not all, of the North American northern sled dog types. Out of the 44 referendums held since federation in 1901, only eight have been passed, making the Australian referendum system one of the most restrictive in the developed world. The Chinese wolf is probably ancestor to the Pekingese and toy spaniels, although it is also probable that descendants of the Chinese and European wolves encountered each other over the millennia, contributing to many of the oriental toy breeds. If a majority of those voting, as well as separate majorities in each of a majority of states, (and where appropriate a majority of people in any affected state) vote in favour of the amendment, it is presented for Royal Assent, given in the Queen's name by the Governor-General. The European wolf, in turn, may have contributed many of its attributes to the Spitz dog types, most terriers, and many of today's sheepdogs.

A bill must first be passed by both houses of Parliament or, in certain limited circumstances, by only one house of Parliament, and is then submitted to a referendum. The Tibetan Mastiff is an example of an ancient breed. Approval in a referendum is necessary in order to amend the Australian constitution. The Indian wolf is also thought to have bred with descendants of the European wolf to create the Mastiffs and eventually leading to the development of such diverse breeds as the Pug, the Saint Bernard, and the Bloodhound. Other voting methods that could be employed are Condorcet's Method and approval voting that are not subject to the effects of irrelevant alternatives and less susceptible to insincere preference intensity. Many of today's wild dogs, such as the dingo, the dhole and pariah dogs, are descended from this wolf. Critics of the Borda count argue that it is particularly susceptible to tactical voting and to the tactical nomination of candidates, and that it may produce results that are opposed by a majority of voters. The Indian Wolf is thought to have contributed to the development of more breeds of dogs than other subspecies.

The De Borda Institute argues that the Borda count would produce results based on consensus rather than majoritarianism; it is therefore suggested for use in plebiscites held in areas of conflict such as Northern Ireland, the Balkans or Kashmir. For example, the Japanese wolf and the Eastern Timber Wolf posses different distinctive colouration, hunting and social structures. Some groups, such as the Northern Ireland De Borda Institute, advocate the conduct of referendums using the Borda count form of preferential voting, and refer to such a vote as a Borda 'preferendum'. Although all wolves belong to the species Canis lupus, there are (or were) many subspecies that had developed a distinctive appearance, social structure, and other traits. In the 1977 Australian referendum the winner was chosen by the system of Instant Run-off Voting (also known as the 'Alternative Vote'). The detailed history remains unexplored and until further evidence is available, the following section on wolf ancestors must be considered purely speculative. In other words the winning option was deemed to be that supported by a plurality, rather than an absolute majority, of voters. Their results indicate multiple independent origins of dogs and/or of frequent interbreeding between early proto-dogs and wolves throughout a vast geographic range.

In the Swedish case, in both referendums the 'winning' option was chosen by the Single Member Plurality ("first past the post") system. Verginelli examined ancient DNA evidence from five prehistoric Italian canids carbon-dated to between 15,000 and 3,000 years old, 341 wolves from several populations worldwide, and 547 purebred dogs. Swiss referendums get around this problem by offering a separate vote on each of the multiple options as well as an additional decision about which of the multiple options should be preferred. On balance, and in agreement with the archaeological evidence, 15,000 years ago is the most likely time for the wolf-dog divergence. This can be resolved by applying voting systems designed for single winner elections to a multiple-choice referendum. (2005), however, suggest both sets of dates must be reevaluated in light of recent findings showing that poorly calibrated molecular clocks have systematically overestimated the age of geologically recent events. A multiple choice referendum poses the problem of how the result is to be determined if no single option receives the support of an absolute majority (i.e., more than half) of voters. Verginelli et al.

In Switzerland, for example, multiple choice referendums are common; two multiple choice referendums held in Sweden, in 1957 and 1980, offered voters a choice of three options; and in 1977 a referendum held in Australia to determine a new national anthem was held in which voters were presented with four choices. (2002) indicated a "common origin from a single gene pool for all dog populations" between 40,000 and 15,000 years ago in East Asia. A referendum usually offers the electorate only two choices, either to accept or reject a proposal, but this need not necessarily be the case. Vilà, Savolainen, and colleagues (1997) concluded that dogs split off from wolves between 75,000 and 135,000 years ago, while a subsequent analysis by Savolainen et al. If one issue is in fact, or in perception, related to another on the ballot, the imposed simultaneous voting of first preference on each issue can result in an outcome that is displeasing to most voters. Genetic analyses have so far yielded divergent results. A difficulty which can plague a referendum of two issues or more is called the separability problem. Dog burials at the Mesolithic cemetery of Svaerdborg in Denmark suggest that in ancient Europe dogs were valued companions.

Some critics of the referendum attack the usual practice of only offering the electorate two options, of either accepting or rejecting a proposal, in a referendum. Rock art and skeletal remains indicate that by 14,000 years ago, dogs were present from North Africa across Eurasia to North America. The repeated holding of a referendum on a single issue has been pejoratively referred to as the phenomenon of the "never-end-um". Remains of smaller dogs from Mesolithic (Natufian) cave deposits in the Middle East, dated to around 12,000 years ago, have been interpreted as descendants of a lighter Southwest Asian wolf, Canis lupus arabs. This is especially a problem where a proposal may be difficult to reverse, such as secession from a larger country or the abolition of a monarchy. Their likely ancestor is the large northern Holarctic wolf, Canis lupus lupus. A further perceived flaw of the referendum is that in some circumstances the democratic spirit of the referendum may be flouted by the repeated submission to the referendum of a proposal until it is eventually endorsed, perhaps due to a low turn-out or public fatigue with the issue. The earliest dog fossils, two crania from Russia and a mandible from Germany, date from 13,000 to 17,000 years ago.

Many of the arguments used by those who oppose the referendum are summarised in the following comment made in an interview in 2003 by the British politician Chris Patten concerning the possibility of a referendum in the UK on the European Union Constitution:. Domesticated dogs may have interbred with local populations of wild wolves on several occasions (so-called introgression). Hitler's use of the plebiscite is one reason why, since World War II, there has been no provision in Germany for the holding of referendums at the federal level. Fossil bone morphologies and genetic analysis of current and ancient dog and wolf populations have not yet been able to conclusively determine whether all dogs descend from a single domestication event, or whether dogs were domesticated independently in more than one location. Some opposition to the referendum has arisen from its use by dictators such as Hitler and Mussolini who, it is argued, used the plebiscite to clothe oppressive policies in a veneer of legitimacy. Converging archaeological and genetic evidence indicate a time of domestication in the late Upper Paleolithic close to the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary, between 17,000 and 14,000 years ago. Some argue that tools such as the referendum may lead to the "tyranny of the majority" and to the erosion of the rights of individuals and minorities. Wolf remains have been found in association with hominid remains dating from 400,000 years ago.

Voters might furthermore be swayed by strong personalities, or the adverse influence of propaganda or expensive advertising campaigns. The relationship between man and canine has deep roots. It is also argued that voters in a referendum may be driven by transient whims rather than careful deliberation, or that they may not be sufficiently well informed to take decisions on complicated or technical issues. As reflected in the nomenclature, dogs are a subspecies of wolf and are thus still able to interbreed. Examples of these would include laws abolishing slavery, granting universal sufferage and removing prohibitions on homosexual relationships in various countries. Molecular systematics indicate that the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) descends from one or more populations of wild wolves (Canis lupus). As evidence, many critics frequently cite numerous controversial changes which did not appear to have the support of a majority of voters at the time and so presumable would have failed under a referendum but which are now strongly supported by the majority of voters. In the UK, it is illegal to kill dogs, even if they are on your private land; you are required to contact your local Police Force, DogsTrust, or the local branch of the RSPCA, who will arrange its collection.

Some opponents therefore insist that the referendum is used by politicians as a way of abrogating responsibility in the taking of difficult or controversial decisions. Feral dogs often form predatory packs that attack livestock and occasionally also prove dangerous to humans. As often conceived by such opponents, representative democracy is a system in which elected officials are the exercisers of independent judgement rather than merely delegates bound to robotically carry out the wishes of voters. Abandoned domestic dogs who become feral are particularly dangerous; they lack the survival skills of wild canines, as well as the genetic and learned fear of the humans' world. Opponents of the referendum argue that representative democracy is superior to direct democracy. Bodies are sometimes tied to fences as warning to other dogs, especially in rural United States and Canada. Other advocates insist that the principle of popular sovereignty demands that certain foundational questions, such as the adoption or amendment of a constitution, the secession of a state or the altering of national boundaries, be determined with the directly expressed consent of the people. Wild dogs are shot by farmers in an effort to protect livestock.

Some adopt a strict definition of democracy in which elected parliaments are merely a necessary expedient needed to make governance possible in the large, modern nation-state; direct democracy is nonetheless preferable and so a referendum must always take preference over a decision of parliament. The same creatures that wolves, coyotes, and foxes attack as prey, especially sheep and poultry, are similarly attractive prey to dogs. Advocates of the referendum argue that certain decisions are best taken out of the hands of political elites and determined directly by the people. In most jurisdictions, dogs are destroyed for killing other creatures, so dogs should be prevented from any encounter with livestock or wildlife that might lead to a predatory response. Nonetheless the referendum is sometimes the subject of controversy. With formidable skills and weapons as hunters as well as large and unfussy appetites, dogs often menace livestock and wildlife. Furthermore, in most jurisdictions that practice them, referendums are relatively rare occurrences and are restricted to issues of major importance. Canine aggression upon humans is ordinarily not tolerated, but any human aggression against an animal having formidable means of self-defense is foolhardy in the extreme.

Although some advocates of direct democracy would have the referendum become the dominant institution of government, in practice, in almost all cases, the referendum exists solely as a complement to the system of representative democracy, in which most major decisions are made by an elected legislature. There are hundreds of shades of provocation that may or may not lead to an attack upon a human. For example, in the Republic of Ireland only citizens may vote in a referendum whereas British citizens resident in the state are entitled to vote in general elections. Provocation can range from something as seemingly innocuous as a toddler pulling a dog's tail, in which case the dog might nip to discourage the behavior, to something completely inobvious to humans, such as an odor or a movement that sets a dog off, to blatant human aggression or violence towards a dog, causing it to defend itself. The franchise in a referendum is not necessarily the same as that for elections. However, their sharp teeth and claws can inflict injury in an attack; a large dog can knock a human down. An alternative is to insist on a certain minimum absolute number of yes votes before a measure can be deemed to have been carried—or of no votes if it is to be deemed vetoed. After thousands of years of domestication and selective breeding for dogs whose aggression towards humans goes no further than a ferocious bark that strongly indicates dislike of a human behavior, most dogs are unlikely to attack people.

This is intended to ensure that the result is representative of the will of the electorate and is analogous to the quorum required in a committee or legislature. Animals are often given attributes such as "loyal", "cute", and "guardian", but these all have the potential to lure people into a false sense of security. In some countries there is also a requirement that there be a certain minimum turn-out of the electorate in order for the result of a referendum to be considered valid. Humans have a tendency to anthropomorphize animals, particularly pets such as dogs, which are generally portrayed as being "man's best friend". In Lithuania certain proposals must be endorsed by a three-quarters majority. More research is needed to determine the intelligence level of dogs, and the motivations behind their responses to their masters. However a referendum may also require the support of a super-majority, such as two-thirds of votes cast. Despite understandably positive interpretations by dog owners, it is questionable whether these animals are truly capable of feeling emotions on a human level.

In most referendums it is sufficient for a measure to be approved by a simple majority of voters in order for it to be carried. Nevertheless, it is often unwise to anthropomorphize the responses of dogs. In countries, such as the United Kingdom, in which referendums are neither mandatory nor binding there may, nonetheless, exist an unwritten convention that certain important constitutional changes will be put to a referendum and that the result will be respected. Some research demonstrates that dogs are able to convey a depth of emotion not seen to the same extent in any other animal; this is purportedly due to their closely-knit development with modern man, and the survival-benefits of such communication as dogs became more dependent on humans for sustenance. in Ireland). Many dogs are reported to have separation anxiety if their owner is away for an extended period of time. In countries in which a referendum must be initiated by parliament it is sometimes mandatory to hold a binding referendum on certain proposals, such as constitutional amendments (e.g. Empirically, dogs are quite dependent on human companionship and may suffer poor health in its absence.

In the United States the term referendum is often reserved for a direct vote initiated by a legislature while a vote originating in a petition of citizens is referred to as an "initiative," "ballot measure" or "proposition.". Many dog owners consider having unconditional acceptance from a friend who is always happy to see them to be quite utilitarian, particularly if the dog also leads them to regular exercise. The process of initiating a referendum by petition is known as the popular or citizen's initiative. Consequently, dogs are popular as pets and companions, independent of any utilitarian considerations. In other circumstances a referendum is usually initiated either by a legislature or by citizens themselves by means of a petition. Relationships between humans and dogs are often characterized by strong emotional bonds. A foundational referendum or plebiscite may be drafted by a constituent assembly before being put to voters. Excitement is evident as they see the hunters load weapons, take to the field, and begin the hunt.

According to an authoritative study by Matt Qvortrup (A Comparative Study of Referendums 2006), only Sweden among democratic nations has not honoured the outcome of a referendum. Hunters with dogs report the satisfaction that the dogs seem to exhibit. Nonetheless, actual political circumstances in countries that hold non-binding referendums are such that the results of such a referendum are usually honoured. Many hound breeds are excellent at treeing raccoons during hunting season. It is left to the government or legislature to interpret the results of a non-binding referendum and it may even choose to ignore them. When trained, beagles are particularly adept at chasing through thick briars and brush after rabbits. A non-binding referendum is merely consultative or advisory. They typically have large, gentle muzzles to mitigate any potential damage to the game.

Referendums may be either binding or non-binding. They can follow hand, verbal, and whistle commands at great distance as the hunter directs them to the downed bird. However the use of referenda is deprecated by the Oxford English Dictionary which advises that:. At command, they dive into the icy water, swim out and retrieve the birds one by one. Referendums and referenda are both commonly used as plurals of referendum. They can spend long hours in a duck blind and, after the hunter has fired at multiple ducks or geese, they can visually spot and remember the location of downed birds. Thus the direct vote that adopted the constitution of the modern Republic of Ireland is referred to as a 'plebiscite' while every subsequent such direct vote has been described as a 'referendum'. As water dogs, the retrievers are unsurpassed.

The term referendum is usually preferred to describe routine votes held in liberal democracies. Once the hunter approaches, at his command they will flush the birds to fly and for the hunter to shoot at. Plebiscites held by undemocratic governments may request approval for a radical governmental decree, or of the general policies of the government. They have a native ability to discover and "hold" upland game birds; to freeze them momentarily on the ground with their silent, elongated pointing stance. Plebiscite is also often the term used to describe a direct vote held by a dictator or an undemocratic regime, in circumstances in which a free and fair vote is impossible. Setters in particular have a long history as upland gun dogs. The terms referendum and plebiscite are often used interchangeably but the term plebiscite is usually preferred in circumstance in which a decision is being made on fundamental issues of sovereignty, such as in determining national borders or adopting a new constitution. This often strengthens the bond between human and dog, since they must trust one another in a variety of environments and must learn how the other works and thinks.

. Many people compete with their dogs in a variety of dog sports, including agility, flyball, and many others. The referendum or plebiscite is a form of direct democracy. Dogs are also used for searching for or rescuing people and animals, such as in avalanches, at disaster sites, and for missing people or pets. Certain kinds of referendums held in some states of the United States are referred to as ballot measures or propositions. Most modern working dogs are put in positions which capitalize on their sensory or strength and endurance advantages over normal humans. This may be the adoption of a new constitution, a constitutional amendment, a law, the recall of an elected official or simply a specific government policy. Dogs have served as guides for the blind, as commandos, and have flown into outer space.

A referendum (plural: referendums or referenda) or plebiscite is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. There are service dogs, guard dogs, hunting dogs, and herding dogs. The de Borda Institute is at [www.deborda.org]. Many breeds of dogs, but not least German Shepherd, Labrador Retriever, and Border Collie are commonly used as working dogs. Defining Democracy puts both two-option and multi-option referendums into their historical context, and suggests which are the more accurate measures of "the will of the people". An assertive dog may consider itself the alpha animal, considering its human master to be subordinate. Emerson, P J. The dog is always aware of its rank relative to other individuals in the group.

2004 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/breakfast_with_frost/2954232.stm. Dogs thrive in human society because their relationships with humans mimic their natural social patterns. Retrieved 13 Oct. Dog society can be thought of as dog packs characterized by a companionate hierarchy, in which each individual has a rank, and in which there is intense loyalty within the group. bbc.co.uk. Dogs thrive in small social groups or packs which, from their viewpoint, can include humans. Interview with Chris Patten, EU Commissioner for External Affairs (2003). The relationship between dogs and humans is rooted in history and dogs coexist with humans in a variety of ways.

Commonwealth, or Estado Libre Asociado, has won each of those referendums. Most dog owners have a large collection of stories about their dogs recognizing individuals by their footsteps outside the door, and so on. Puerto Rico: Several referendums have taken place since 1967, including one in 1994 and another one in 1998, seeking an answer to the century-old question of what do Puerto Ricans want for the archipielago of nearly 4 million inhabitants: Independence (Comprising Republic and a Associated Republic , Statehood or mantain the Commonwealth status. This ability to read and deliver nonverbal cues makes dogs expert at reading human beings, as well, often even more so than other humans are, who rely on language. This referendum was offered by the government as part of a violence minimization initiative known as project disarmament.. Physiologically, this correlates with such features as a large number of nerves innervating the facial muscles of dogs, allowing subtle control of a wide variety of facial expressions; in contrast to cats, for instance, who have many fewer nerves governing their facial muscles, resulting in a smaller repertoire or "vocabulary" of expressions. Brazil: In October 2005, 122 million voters have decided to continue to allow the sale of firearms in Brazil. The requirements of coordinating complex social behavior requires that canines have the ability to sense and deliver a wide variety of cues via body language, more so than for even humans, who can use language for the same purpose.

Also, in 1986 another referendum approved Spain's membership to NATO. All dogs have a tremendous capacity to learn complex social behavior and to interpret varied body language and sounds, and, like many predators, can react to and learn from novel situations. Spaniards chose (94%) to change ("Referéndum para la reforma política", literally «Referendum in order to the political reformation»). Gastric torsion and bloat is a dangerous problem in some large-chested breeds. Spain: In 1976 a referendum was held to determine if citizens wanted to change the political system (i.e., the dictatorship) or not to change it, after the death of Francisco Franco. Dogs are also susceptible to the same ailments that humans are, including diabetes, epilepsy, cancer, and arthritis. state initiative is probably California's Proposition 13 which severely limited property tax increases. Some breeds of dogs are also prone to certain genetic ailments, such as hip dysplasia, luxating patellas, cleft palate, blindness, or deafness.

The most famous U.S. Internal parasites include hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms, and heartworms. However the constitutions of 24 states and many local and city governments provide for referendums and citizen's initiatives. Common external parasites are various species of fleas, ticks, and mites. United States: There is no provision for the holding of referendums at the federal level in the United States. Diseases commonly associated with dogs include rabies (hydrophobia), canine parvovirus, and canine distemper, and pulmonic stenosis, although there are many others. France: In France a constitutional amendment must be approved by either a super-majority in parliament or by the people in a referendum. Dogs are susceptible to various diseases, ailments, and poisons, some of which affect humans in the same way, others of which are unique to dogs.

Very few such initiatives pass the vote, but more often, the parliamentary counter proposal is approved. It is said that the animals, not just dogs, could sense the tsunami and could therefore flee for life. Often, parliament elaborates a counter-proposal to an initiative, leading to a multiple-choice referendum. For example, during the tsunami in Southern Asia recently, many animals were seen days before fleeing to the hills. Constitutional amendments are either proposed by the parliament or the cantons, or they may be proposed by citizens' initiatives, which—on the federal level—need to collect 100,000 valid signatures within 18 months, and must not contradict international laws or treaties. The evolutionary ability of sensing weather can be traced back to when wolves used it to move the pack into proper shelter before a dangerous storm. In many municipalities, expenditures that exceed a certain amount of money also are subject to the obligatory referendum. This is due to their keen ability to detect fluctuations in barometric pressure and can explain a dog's anxiety before and during a storm.

Obligatory referendum: There must be a referendum on any amendments to the constitution and on any joining of a multinational community or organization for collective security. Dogs also have the ability to sense inclement weather (mainly thunderstorms) many miles away. The facultative referendum is the most usual type of referendum, and it is mostly carried out by political parties or by interest groups. It has been observed that a lost dog can often find its way home, sometimes traveling over long distances. In cantons and municipalities, the required number of people is smaller, and there may be additional causes for a faculatative referendum, e.g., expenditures that exceed a certain amount of money. An intensive search for a scent, for instance searching a ship for contraband, can actually be very fatiguing for a dog, and the dog must be motivated to continue this hard work for a long period of time. Facultative referendum: Any federal law, certain other federal resolutions, and international treaties that are either perpetual and irredeemable, joinings of an international organization, or that change Swiss law may be subject to a facultative referendum if at least 50,000 people or eight cantons have petitioned to do so within 100 days. In any event, it is established by those who train tracking dogs that it is impossible to teach the dog how to track any better than it does naturally; the object instead is to motivate it properly, and teach it to maintain focus on a single track and ignore any others that might otherwise seem of greater interest to an untrained dog.

The characteristics and behavior of these two types of scent trail would seem, after some thought, to be quite different, the air scent being intermittent but perhaps less obscured by competing scents, whereas the ground scent would be relatively permanent with respect to careful and repetitive search by the dog, but would seem to be much more contaminated with other scents. What information a dog actually detects when he is scenting is not perfectly understood; although once a matter of debate, it now seems to be well established that dogs can distinguish two different types of scents when trailing, an air scent from some person or thing that has recently passed by, as well as a ground scent that remains detectable for a much longer period. Some breeds have been selectively bred for excellence in detecting scents, even compared to their canine brethren. Dogs have nearly 220 million smell-sensitive cells over an area about the size of a pocket handkerchief (compared to 5 million over an area the size of a postage stamp for humans).

They can identify a sound's location much faster than a human can, and they can hear sounds up to four times the distance that humans can. Dogs detect sounds as low as the 16 to 20 Hz frequency range (compared to 20 to 70 Hz for humans) and as high as 70,000 to 100,000 Hz (compared to 20,000 Hz for humans)², and in addition have a degree of ear mobility that helps them to rapidly pinpoint the exact location of a sound. Some breeds, particularly the best sighthounds, have a field of vision up to 270° (compared to 100° to 120° for humans), although broad-headed breeds with their eyes set forward have a much narrower field of vision, as low as 180°.^{1, 2}. Because the lenses of dogs' eyes are flatter than humans', they cannot see as much detail; on the other hand, their eyes are more sensitive to light and motion than humans' eyes.

It has also been suggested that dogs see in varieties of purple/violet and yellow shades. Dogs were thought to be dichromats and thus, by human standards, color blind.^{1, 2} New research is now being explored that suggests that dogs may actually see some colour, but not to the extent that humans do. Dogs are predators and scavengers, possessing sharp teeth and strong jaws for attacking, holding, and tearing their food. Within the range of extremes, dogs generally share attributes with their wild ancestors, the wolves.

Modern dog breeds show more variation in size, appearance, and behavior than any other domestic animal. Many veterinarians recommend that owners neuter/spay their pets around the age of 5 months. A female dog can become pregnant on her first heat cycle (which can take place as early as six months), and should be kept away from intact male dogs, including littermates, over the age of 4 months. Contrary to myth, it is not required for a female dog to either experience a heat cycle or have puppies before spaying, and likewise, a male dog does not need the experience of mating before neutering; these myths are responsible for numerous unnecessary health problems and unwanted puppies.

The hormonal changes involved are sure to change the animal's personality somewhat, and some object to this angle as the sterilization in itself could be carried out without the excision of organs. Spaying and neutering can also help prevent hormone-driven diseases such as breast cancer and prostate cancer, as well as undesired hormone-driven behaviors. It is also common for adult stray dogs who are placed in animal shelters to be euthanized due to lack of space and resources. Unwanted puppies are abandoned, eaten, or sometimes disposed of in an inhumane fashion.

Dog experts advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be spayed or neutered so that they do not have undesired puppies. Spaying or neutering refers to the removal of the male testicles or the female ovaries and uterus, in order to remove the capability to procreate, and to kill the libido. For example, the Bulldog often requires artificial insemination and almost always requires cesarean section for giving birth. Some breeds have been developed to emphasize certain physical traits beyond the point at which they can safely bear litters on their own.

Since a mother can only provide nutrients and care to a limited number of offspring, humans must assist in the care and feeding when the litter exceeds approximately eight puppies. An average litter consists of about six puppies, though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. Dogs bear their litters roughly 9 weeks after fertilization. This rule is altered in domesticated animals since larger litters are often favoured for economic reasons.

A general rule of thumb is that a mammal will produce half as many offspring as the number of teats on the mother. The different rates of maturation are responsible for the menarche, not the chronological age. Like most mammals, the age that a bitch first comes into season is mostly a function of her current body weight as a proportion of her body weight when fully mature. Most bitches come into season for the first time between 6 and 12 months, although some larger breeds delay until as late as 2 years.

Conversely, undomesticated canine species experience estrus once a year, typically in late winter. This is also called in season or in heat. The amount of time between cycles varies greatly among different dogs, but a particular dog's cycle tends to be consistent through her life. The ability of female domestic dog to come into estrus at any time of the year and usually twice a year is also valued.

In domestic dogs, one of the behaviours that is noted is the abolition of the pair bond seen in wild canines. As with most domesticated species, one of the first and strongest effects seen from selective breeding is selection for cooperation with the breeding process as directed by humans. Dog owners may accidentally allow their pets to breed without regard to bloodlines. Dog breeders also have accurate information on the complexities of the reproductive process for the breed of dog that they are accustomed to handling.

Dog breeders have access to records which allow them to accurately guess which characteristics will "breed true" in a particular dog. Breeders who do this are usually experienced in this process. Sometimes dogs are bred to create puppies to sell, or sometimes to carry on an award-winning purebred line. Among professional breeders, dogs are only allowed to mate for a specific purpose.

Dogs also may find some poisons attractive, including antifreeze and snail bait. Alcoholic beverages pose much the same temptation and hazard to dogs as to humans. Some human medications, such as acetaminophen/paracetamol (Tylenol), are highly toxic to dogs. Some foods commonly enjoyed by humans are dangerous to dogs, including chocolate (Theobromine poisoning), onions, grapes and raisins, Macadamia nuts, and hops.

For a discussion on one use of treats in training, see clicker training. Such dogs might consider anything dropped by humans, including small but indigestible objects (such as marbles, coins, rings, etc.), to be treats as well, which could be dangerous to the dogs when ingested. Many dogs consider anything given to them directly by hand to be a treat, even the food they are accustomed to at meal time. Eating grass might make the dog vomit, so one explanation is that dogs eat grass to remove unwanted content from their stomachs.

Explanations abound, but rationales such as that it neutralizes acid are just guesses. Dogs sometimes eat grass, a harmless activity. This research is also true of other mammals. It has also been noted that extremely stressful conditions, such as the Iditarod race and scientific studies of similar conditions, suggest that high-protein diets including meat help prevent damage to muscle tissue.

In the wild these diets are typically pursued in the absence of available meat. Some sources suggest that a dog fed on a stict vegetarian diet may develop dilated cardiomyopathy since it lacks L-carnitine.^[3]. Domestic dogs can survive healthily on a reasonable and carefully designed vegetarian diet, particularly if eggs and milk products are included. Wild canines not only eat available plants to obtain key amino acids, but may also obtain nutrients from vegetable matter from the stomach contents of their herbivorous prey.

Dogs are able to healthily digest a variety of foods including vegetables and grains, and in fact can consume a large proportion of these in their diet. Unlike an obligate carnivore, such as a cat, a dog is not dependent on meat protein in order to fulfill its dietary requirements. The classification in the Order Carnivora does not necessarily mean that a dog's diet must be restricted to meat. Presently, there is academic discussion as to whether domestic dogs are omnivores or carnivores.

For a detailed discussion on what dog intelligence is, see dog intelligence. Anecdotal evidence suggests that dogs have a reasonably high intelligence. Among dog lovers, dogs are generally valued for their intelligence. They have small, tight feet, and walk on their toes.

Its skeleton provides the ability to run and leap. Like most other predatory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance, and teeth for catching, holding, and tearing. Although selective breeding has changed the appearance of many breeds, all dogs retain the basic ingredients from their distant ancestors. Many additional terms are used for dogs that are not purebred; see Terms for mixed-breed dogs.

The word is sometimes used to refer collectively to any mammal belonging to the family Canidae (as in "the dog family"), such as wolves, foxes and coyotes. Dog, in common usage, refers to the domestic pet dog, Canis lupus familiaris (originally classified as Canis familiaris by Linnaeus in 1758, but reclassified as a subspecies of the wolf, Canis lupus, by the Smithsonian Institution and the American Society of Mammalogists in 1993). . In other cultures, some dogs are used as food.

Dogs have lived with and worked with humans in so many roles that their loyalty has earned them the sobriquet "man's best friend." Conversely, some cultures consider dogs to be unclean. In many countries, the most common and perhaps most important role of dogs is as companions. For dogs that do not have traditional jobs, a wide range of dog sports provide the opportunity to exhibit their natural skills. Dogs fill a variety of roles in human society and are often trained as working dogs.

Dogs, like humans, are highly social animals and pack hunters; this similarity in their overall behavioral pattern accounts for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations. For example, heights at the withers range from just a few inches (such as the Chihuahua) to roughly three feet (such as the Irish Wolfhound), and colors range from white to black, with reds, grays (usually called blue), and browns occurring in a tremendous variation of patterns. In this time, the dog has developed into hundreds of breeds with a great degree of variation. Dogs were first domesticated from wolves at least 15000 years ago[1] but perhaps as long as 150,000 years ago based on recent genetic fossil evidence and DNA evidence^[2].

The dog is a canine mammal of the Order Carnivora. It too has the body plan of an adult canine predator. The least paedomorphic behavior pattern may be that of the basenji, bred in Africa to hunt alongside humans almost on a peer basis; this breed is often described as highly independent, neither needing nor appreciating a great deal of human attention or nurturing, often described as "catlike" in its behavior. Terriers similarly have adult aggressive behavior, famously coupled with a lack of juvenile submission, and display correspondingly adult physical features such as erect ears, although many breeds have also been selected for size and sometimes dwarfed legs to enable them to pursue prey in their burrows.

This contrasts with sighthounds, who pursue and attack perceived prey on sight, and who maintain the mature canine body type with erect ears, lean bodies, and adult coats. Scenthounds maintain an intermediate body type and behavior pattern that causes them to actually pursue prey by tracking their scent, but tend to refrain from actual individual attacks in favor of vocally summoning the pack leaders (in this case, humans) to do the job. Their physical characteristics are closer to that of the mature wild canine than the sheepdog breeds, but they typically do not have erect ears, etc. Similarly, they seize dead or wounded prey and bring it back to the "pack", even though they did not attack it themselves, that is, "retrieving" behavior.

They identify potential prey and freeze into immobility, for instance, but refrain from then stalking the prey as an adult predator would do next; this results in the "pointing" behavior for which such dogs are bred. Gun dog breeds used in hunting—that is, pointers, setters, spaniels, and retrievers—have an intermediate degree of paedomorphism; they are at the point where they share in the pack's hunting behavior, but are still in a junior role, not participating in the actual attack. (Compare to the physical appearance of the border collie, a sheep herding dog, whose physical configuration is closer to that of an adult wild canine and who therefore has a greater capacity to frighten sheep into a desired pattern of movement, along with the more adult aggressive temperament to do so). In addition, they retain very juvenile physical characteristics such as round bodies and heads, soft coats, ears that hang down, and so on, which do not elicit fear responses from the sheep in the way that an appearance similar to that of an adult wolf would.

Livestock guardian dogs retain the most juvenile characteristics: they stay close to home with their foster "litter" (which might include a flock of sheep), rather than going out hunting, they have almost no predatory behavior (which would be disastrous in the vicinity of such a natural prey stimulus as sheep), they respond to perceived threats with a lot of vocalization and attempts to alert and engage the dominant individuals in their "pack" (i.e. humans) whenever possible, engaging in actual combat only as a last resort. Canine in common usage is a synonym for dog or an adjective meaning dog; for example, in the common expression "canine companion". Pooch, Poochie, Pup, Puppy, Doggy, Doggie are all informal and affectionate terms for a dog often used by children. Puppy is a juvenile dog.

Pack is used to denote a group of dogs. Bitch is a female dog. Dog is also a term used by breeders to specifically denote a male domestic dog.