Japan

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News stories from Wikinews. He is the second non-Italian and the first German Pontiff to be elected since Pope Adrian VI (an ethnic German born in future Dutch territory of the Holy Roman Empire, so he was German in terms of his ethnicity and citizenship). Japan's involvement in the Iraq war, however, marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II. He was then replaced by the German Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and at the same time, the Dean of the College of Cardinals, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, the future Pope Benedict XVI after more than a quarter of a century in 2005. Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military forces to wage war against other countries. He in turn was succeeded by the non-Italian Pope John Paul II (1978–2005), who was an intellectual heavyweight unprecedented since Pope Pius XII. Following American Occupation after World War II, the only time in Japan's recorded history where it had been occupied by a foreign power, the Imperial Army was dissolved in 1945 and replaced in 1954 by the Japan Self-Defense Forces. (He had worked with Pacelli in the 1930s and 1940s in the curia.) Yet Pope Paul was succeeded (albeit for a short time) by the non-Curialist Pope John Paul I (1978), who it was said was chosen not as an experienced insider nor administrator, but as a "simple, holy man".

Following centuries of feudalism, Japan established two separate military services in the late 1800s, the Imperial Japanese Army (modeled upon the army of Germany) and the Imperial Japanese Navy (modeled upon the Royal Navy of the UK). Montini, Pope Paul VI (1963–1978) like Pius XII, was a curialist. Japanese culture has attracted many devotees in Europe and North America as well. After a short but dramatic pontificate during which he convoked the Second Vatican Council which resulted in wide ranging changes in the church, the surprise John was replaced by the widely expected choice Cardinal Giovanni Montini, who many believed would have been elected in 1958, had he been a cardinal then. Especially notable contributions of modern Japan to the rest of the world include animation (anime) and graphic novels (manga). John proved to be a radical break with the two previous popes, and indeed with most of the popes of the 20th century. Today, Japan is a major exporter of such culture, which has gained popularity around the world, particularly in the other countries of East Asia. The contrast between diffident, intellectual and distant Pius XII and the humble, in his own words "ordinary" Good Pope John was dramatic, with none more surprised at the election than Pope John himself, who had his own return rail ticket in his pocket when he was elected.

Also, the Japanese are the largest spenders of money on luxury goods in the world. Pius was then replaced by the lower-class, elderly, popular, informal Pope John XXIII (1958–1963). This influence is apparent in Japan's contemporary popular culture, which combines Asian, European, and, 1950-onward, American influences in its fashion, films, literature, television, video games, and music. He was also the ultimate insider; his family were descended from the papal aristocracy, with his brother working as a lawyer for the Holy See. From the mid-19th century onward, Western influence prevailed, with American influence becoming especially predominant following the end of World War II. Pius XII was seen as one of the great thinkers in the papacy in the 20th century. In the pre-modern era, Japan developed a distinct culture, in its arts: (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e), crafts (dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, onsen, sento, tea ceremony, architecture, gardens, swords), and cuisine. Pius XI was replaced in 1939 by the aristocratic ultra-insider Curialist, Pius XI's Secretary of State Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli, Pope Pius XII (1939–1958).

Historically, China and Korea have been the most influential starting with the development of the Yayoi culture from around 300 BC and culminating with the introduction of rice farming, ceremonial burial, pottery, painting, writing, poetry, etiquette, the Chinese writing system, and Mahayana Buddhism by the 7th century AD. Pius's rugged ultraconservatism contrasted with the low-key moderatism of Giacomo Cardinal della Chiesa, Pope Benedict XV (1914–1922), which again contrasted with the former librarian mountain-climber Achille Cardinal Ratti, Pope Pius XI (1922–1939), who led Roman Catholicism with an authoritarianism more akin to Pope Pius X, who also shared his temper. Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jomon culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines a number of influences from Asia, Europe, and America. He in turn was succeeded by the lower-class, bluntly outspoken Pope Pius X (1903–1914). Many other Japanese literary works were also written by women. The controversial one-time populist turned conservative, long-lived Pope Pius IX (1846–1878) was succeeded by the aristocratic diplomatic Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903). Japanese literature reached a high point during the 11th century with the Genji Monogatari (The Tale of Genji) by Lady Murasaki Shikibu. Past cardinals have often voted for someone radically different to the pope who appointed them.

The oldest surviving Japanese book written in hiragana is the Tosa Diary (935) by Ki no Tsurayuki. The newly elected pope often contrasts dramatically with his predecessor, a tendency expressed by the Italian axiom "After a fat pope a lean pope". It was written in a mixture of Chinese, used both ideographically, phonetically, and otherwise to create Japanese meanings. John Paul I did not want the elaborate coronation ceremony for himself, choosing instead to be consecrated in a Papal Inauguration ceremony. The oldest surviving book written in Japan is the Kojiki (712). Formerly, the Pope would be crowned by the triregnum or Triple Tiara at the Papal Coronation. Much vocabulary also has been imported from Chinese, or created on Chinese models. The new Pope then gives his first apostolic blessing, Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World").

Written Japanese has been heavily influenced by Chinese although Chinese language itself belongs in a different language family. In 1903 Protodeacon Prospero Cardinal Caterini was physically incapable of completing the announcement, so another made it for him. Japanese texts may also include rōmaji (letters from the Latin alphabet) as well as various special symbols. In such an event the announcement is made by the next senior Deacon, who has thus succeeded as Protodeacon, and not by the new Pope himself. Modern Japanese is written with a mix of Chinese characters (kanji) and a modified syllabary, kana, also originally based on Chinese characters. It has happened in the past that the Cardinal Protodeacon has himself been the person elected Pope. It is distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. Next, the senior Cardinal Deacon (the Cardinal Protodeacon) appears at the main balcony of the basilica's façade to proclaim the new pope with the Latin phrase:.

Japanese language is an agglutinative language that belongs in the the Altaic language family. The Pope dresses by himself, selecting among the three sizes of white robes made available, and returns to the conclave, where the Cardinal Camerlengo places the Fisherman's Ring on his finger and each cardinal pays homage to the new Pope, who sits on a footstool near the altar. Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and 96% of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution. The origin of the name is uncertain, but seems to imply the commixture of joy and sorrow felt by the newly chosen holder of the monumental office. Since 1947, compulsory education consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15). Later, the new Pope goes to the "Room of Tears," a small red room next to the Sistine Chapel. Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as one result of the Meiji Restoration. After the papal name is chosen, the officials are readmitted to the conclave, and the Master of Pontifical Liturgical writes a document recording the acceptance and the new name of the Pope.

Also, since the mid-19th century, many religious sects called Shinkosyukyo, and later shinshukyo, emerged. In most cases, even if such considerations are absent, Popes tend to choose new papal names; the last Pope to reign under his baptismal name was Pope Marcellus II (1555). A minority profess to Christianity (0.7%) and other religions (4.7%) like shamanism, Islam, and Hinduism. Pope John II was the first to adopt a new papal name; he felt that his original name, Mercurius, was inappropriate, as it was also the name of a Roman god. This results in a variety of practices such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. Since 533, the new Pope has also decided on the name by which he is to be called at this time. Nonetheless, most of the people are not atheists, and the tendency is often identified with syncretism, secularism, and even irreligion. Only after becoming a bishop does the Pope-elect take office.

When asked to identify their religion, most would profess to believe in either Shintoism (54%) or Buddhism (40%), for simple reasons like their family has belonged to some sect of Buddhism or to avoid contention with religious foreigners. If a priest is elected, the Cardinal Dean ordains him bishop; if a layman is elected, then the Cardinal Dean first ordains him priest, and only then bishop. The Japanese people's concern towards religion is mostly related to mythology, traditions, and neighborhood activities rather than the source of morality or the guideline for one's life, for which sometimes Confucianism, or even Taoism, tends to serve as the basis for the moral code. If he is not a bishop, however, he must be first ordained as one before he can assume office. Immigration, however, is not publicly popular as recent increased crime rates are often attributed to foreigners living in Japan. If he does, and is already a bishop, he immediately takes office. Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a possible solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. The Cardinal Dean then asks the Pope-elect if he assents to the election ("Do you accept your canonical election as Supreme Pontiff?").

The main problem will be the financial crisis that comes from having a higher and higher dependency ratio (nonworking young and old compared to working ages.) Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[3]. Once the election concludes, the junior Cardinal Deacon summons the Secretary of the College of Cardinals and the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations into the hall. Assuming current birth and death rates, the 2005 population of 128 million will decline to 100 million in 2050, and 64 million in 2100-- and keep falling. Originally, damp straw was added to the fire to create dark smoke; since 1958 chemicals have been used, and since 2005 bells ring after a successful election in case the white smoke is not unambiguously white. The population started declining in 2005, as the 1.067 million births were exceeded by the 1.077 million deaths. Dark smoke signals that the ballot did not result in an election, while white smoke signals that a new Pope was chosen. The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social securities like the public pension plan. The colour of the smoke signals the results to the people assembled in St Peter's Square.

By 2007, over 20% of the population will be over the age of 65. If the first election held in any given morning or afternoon does not result in an election, the cardinals proceed to the next vote immediately; the papers from both ballots are burnt together at the end of the second vote. Japan has the highest life expectancy in the world (85.2 years for women and 78.3 years for men in 2002 [2]). The ballots are then all burnt by the Scrutineers with the assistance of the Secretary of the College and the Masters of Ceremonies. The Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in births as the country modernized in the latter part of the 20th century (notable aspects including the shift from agricultural to urban lifestyles and the increasing tendency for women to remain in the workplace). The Scrutineers add up all of the votes, and the Revisers check the ballots and the names on the Scrutineers' lists to ensure that no error was made. Thus, they have been subject to discrimination. Once all of the ballots have been opened, the final post-scrutiny phase begins.

Sometimes these returnees are not considered truly Japanese and suspected of being descendants of the Burakumin "unclean" caste of feudal times, a group of people known to have immigrated to South American countries. The last of the Scrutineers reads the name aloud. People of Japanese heritage returning from overseas have citizenship if their birth in a foreign country was registered in Japan on their behalf by a family member. Each ballot is unfolded by the first Scrutineer; all three Scrutineers separately write down the name indicated on the ballot. Monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth. If, however, no irregularities are observed, the ballots may be opened and the votes counted. Simply being born in Japan does not assure citizenship. If the number of ballots does not correspond to the number of cardinal electors present, the ballots are burnt, unread, and the vote is repeated.

Japanese citizenship is conferred on an infant when a family member registers the infant's birth in the family registry held by a neighborhood ward office. Once all votes have been cast, the first Scrutineer chosen shakes the container, and the last Scrutineer removes and counts the ballots. About 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language. The oath is taken by all cardinals only at the first vote. Japanese society is ethnically and linguistically homogeneous, with small populations of primarily Ryukyuans (1.5 million), North and South Koreans (1 million), Chinese and Taiwanese (0.5 million), Filipinos (0.5 million), and Brazilians — mostly of Japanese descent — (250,000), as well as the indigenous Ainu minority in Hokkaido. When the Infirmarii return to the Chapel, the ballots are counted to ensure that their number matches with the number of ill cardinals; thereafter, they are deposited in the appropriate receptacle. The Koizumi government is attempting to privatize Japan Post, one of the country's largest providers of savings and insurance services, by 2007. If any cardinal elector is by reason of infirmity confined to his room, the Infirmarii go to their rooms with ballot papers and a box.

Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries. Before casting the ballot, each cardinal elector takes a Latin oath, which translates to: "I call as my witness Christ the Lord who will be my judge, that my vote is given to the one who before God I think should be elected." If any cardinal elector is in the Chapel, but cannot proceed to the altar due to infirmity, the last Scrutineer may go to him and take his ballot after the oath is recited. Japan's service sector accounts for about three-fourths of its total economic output. The cardinal electors proceed, in order of precedence, to take their completed ballots (which bear only the name of the individual voted for) to the altar, where the Scrutineers stand. Robotics constitutes a key long-term economic strength. Then the scrutiny phase of the election commences. Construction has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion-dollar government contracts in the civil sector. New Scrutineers, Infirmarii and Revisers are not selected again after the first ballot.

Japan also holds a large market share in high-technology industries such as semiconductors, industrial chemicals, machine tools, and (in recent years) aerospace. The junior Cardinal Deacon then draws by lot nine names; the first three become Scrutineers, the second three Infirmarii and the last three Revisers. Internationally, Japan is best known for its automotive and electronics industries, as the home of big manufacturers such as Toyota, Honda, Nissan, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Sony, Matsushita, Toshiba, Nikon, Suzuki and Hitachi. As the cardinals begin to write down their votes, the Secretary of the College of Cardinals, the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations and the Masters of Ceremonies exit; the junior Cardinal Deacon then closes the door. Industry, one-fourth of Japan's GDP, is heavily dependent on imported raw materials and fuels. The process of voting comprises three phases: the "pre-scrutiny," the "scrutiny," and the "post-scrutiny." During the pre-scrutiny, the Masters of the Ceremonies prepare ballot papers bearing the words Eligo in Summum Pontificem ("I elect as Supreme Pontiff") and provide at least two to each cardinal elector. Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial whaling. However, there can be no waiving of the requirement that a valid election takes place only by an absolute majority of the votes.

Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch, prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to over depletion in fish stocks such as tuna. This includes the possibility of eliminating all candidates except the two who have received the greatest number of votes in the previous ballot and reducing the majority require for an election. Although Japan is usually self-sufficient in rice (except for its use in making rice crackers and processed foods), the country must import about 50% of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops, and relies on imports for most of its supply of meat. After a further seven ballots, the cardinal electors may decide by an absolute majority, to advise and change the election rules. Imported rice, the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of 490% and restricted to a quota of only 3% of the total rice market. If, after another seven ballots, no result is achieved, voting is suspended once more, the address being delivered by the senior Cardinal Bishop. Japan's small agricultural sector, however, is also highly subsidized and protected, with government regulations that favor small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America. After seven further ballots, the process may again be similarly suspended, with the address now being delivered by the senior Cardinal Priest.

Japanese agriculture has one of the world's highest levels of productivity per unit area. If no result is obtained after three vote days of balloting, the process is suspended for a maximum of one day for prayer and an address by the senior Cardinal Deacon. Japan uses a system of terrace farming to build in a small area due to lack of available land. If a ballot take place on the afternoon of the first day and no-one is elected, or no ballot had taken place, four ballots are held on each successive day: two in each morning and two in each afternoon. Although the effectiveness of these laws is still ambiguous, the economy has begun to respond, but Japan's aging population is expected to place further strain on growth in the near future. On the afternoon of the first day, one ballot may be held. The current government of Junichiro Koizumi has enacted or attempted to pass (sometimes with failure) major privatization and foreign-investment laws intended to help stimulate Japan's dormant economy. Universi Dominici Gregis specifically prohibits media such as newspapers, the radio, and television.

Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability. Cardinal electors may not correspond or converse with anyone outside the conclave, by post, radio, telephone or otherwise. Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called keiretsu; the powerful enterprise unions and shuntō; cozy relations with government bureaucrats, and the guarantee of lifetime employment (shushin koyo) in big corporations and highly unionized blue-collar factories. Secrecy is maintained during the conclave; the cardinals as well as the conclavists and staff are not permitted to disclose any information relating to the election. However, the economy has seen signs of strong recovery and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) projects 2% growth in 2005. Finally, a strictly limited number of servant staff are permitted for housekeeping and the preparing and serving of meals³. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the slowing of the US and Asia economies. Priests are available to hear the confession in different languages; two doctors are also admitted.

Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely due to the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. The Secretary of the College of Cardinals, the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations, two Masters of Ceremonies, two officers of the Papal Sacristy and an ecclesiastic assisting the Dean of the College of Cardinals are also admitted to the conclave. For three decades, overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s. Each cardinal elector may be accompanied by two attendants or conclavists (three if the cardinal elector is ill). Government-industry cooperation, aid from the United States following World War II, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, emphasis on education, and a comparatively small defense allocation have helped Japan advance with extraordinary speed to become the second largest economy in the world, after the U.S. An ill cardinal may leave the conclave and later be readmitted; a cardinal who leaves for any reason other than illness may not return to the conclave. Each prefecture has an administrative bureaucracy. Cardinals who arrive after the conclave has begun are admitted nevertheless.

Voters in each prefecture elect a governor and a legislative assembly. After the clarification of the doubts, the election may commence. The Local Government Law of Japan divides the country into 47 prefectures, which carry out administrative duties, independently of the central government. Following the recitation of prayers, the Cardinal Dean asks if any doubts relating to procedure remain. From north to south, these are:. After the speech concludes, the ecclesiastic leaves. The other islands constitute one region each. The ecclesiastic makes a speech concerning the problems facing the Church and on the qualities the new Pope needs to have.

Honshu, by far the largest and most populated island, is typically divided into five (or more) regions. The Master himself may remain, as may one ecclesiastic designated by the Congregations prior to the commencement of the election. Japan is commonly divided into regions. After all the cardinals present have taken the oath, the Master of the Papal Liturgical Celebrations orders all individuals other than the cardinals and conclave participants to leave the Chapel. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryukyu and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands. The Cardinal Dean reads the oath aloud in full; in order of precedence, the other cardinal electors merely state, while touching the Gospels, that they "do so promise, pledge and swear.". Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. The Cardinals then take an oath to observe the procedures set down by the apostolic constitutions; to, if elected, defend the liberty of the Holy See; to maintain secrecy; and to disregard the instructions of secular authorities on voting.

Japan's varied geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:. Then, they gather in the afternoon in the Pauline Chapel of the Palace of the Vatican, proceeding to the Sistine Chapel while singing the Veni Creator. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons develop from tropical depressions generated near the equator, and track from the southwest to the northeast, often bringing heavy rain. On the morning of the day designated by the Congregations of Cardinals, the cardinal electors assemble in St Peter's Basilica to celebrate the Eucharist. The rainy season begins in most of Honshu around the 8th of June and ends (tsuyu-ake) around the 20th of July. A vacancy in the papal office may also result from a papal abdication, though no pope has abdicated since Celestine V in 1294 and Gregory XII in 1409. Japan's main rainy season begins (tsuyu-iri) in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaido in late July. The conclave normally takes place fifteen days after the death of the Pope, but the Congregations may extend the period to a maximum of twenty days in order to permit other cardinals to arrive in the Vatican City.

Due to severe water pollution, these reefs are now dying. The Congregations also fix the date and time of the commencement of the conclave. The waters of the Kuroshio Current also warm the Pacific side of Japan, sustaining the coral reefs of Japan, the northernmost coral reefs in the world. The Congregations must make certain arrangements in respect of the Pope's burial, which by tradition takes place from four to six days of the Pope's death, leaving time for pilgrims to see the dead pontiff, and is to be followed by a nine-day period of mourning (this is known as the novemdiales, Latin for "nine days"). The climate is also affected by the seasonal winds, blown from the continent to the ocean in winters and vice versa in summers. The Cardinal Camerlengo and Cardinal Assistants are responsible, among other things, for maintaining the election's secrecy. Because of its great length from north to south, Japan's climate varies from region to region: the far north is very cold in the winter, while the far south is subtropical. Every three days, new Cardinal Assistants are chosen by lot.

Japan's average temperature for the summer time is 30°C, and for the winter, it is 4.7°C. The Particular Congregation, which deals with the day-to-day matters of the Church, includes the Cardinal Camerlengo and the three Cardinal Assistants—one Cardinal Bishop, one Cardinal Priest and one Cardinal Deacon—chosen by lot. Japan is a temperate region with four seasons of varying severity--five, if the rainy season is included. All cardinals are obliged to attend the General Congregation of Cardinals, except those whose health does not permit, or who are over eighty (but those cardinals may choose to attend if they please). Hot springs are numerous, and have been developed as resorts. During the sede vacante, as the papal vacancy is known, certain limited powers pass to the College of Cardinals, which is convoked by the Dean of the College of Cardinals. The most recent major quakes include the 2004 Chuetsu Earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. The tradition originated to avoid forgery of documents, but today merely is a symbol of the end of the pope's reign.

Twenty percent of the world's earthquakes magnitude 6.0 and higher are epicentered in Japan. The Cardinal Camerlengo takes possession of the Fisherman's Ring worn by the Pope; the Ring, along with the papal seal, is later destroyed before the College of Cardinals. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century. During the twentieth century the use of the hammer in this ritual has been abandoned; under Universi Dominici Gregis, the Camerlengo must merely declare the Pope's death by calling him three times by his Christian name in the presence of the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations, and of the Cleric Prelates, Secretary and Chancellor of the Apostolic Camera. Frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. The death of the Pope is verified by the Cardinal Camerlengo, or Chamberlain, who traditionally performed the task by gently striking the Pope's head with a small silver hammer and calling out his Christian (not papal) name three times. Japan is situated in a volcanic zone on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of the Philippine Plate, Pacific Plate, Eurasian Plate, and North American Plate. A Cardinal who is considered to be a prospect for the papacy is referred to informally as being papabile (plural noun: papabili), the term being coined by Vatican watchers in the mid-twentieth century.

This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas. Speculation tends to mount when a Pope is ill or aged and shortlists of potential candidates appear in the media. About 73% of the country is mountainous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use, due to the generally steep elevations, climate, and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground, and heavy rain. However, there is inevitably always much speculation about which Cardinals have serious prospects of being elected. Japan is the 18th most densely populated country in the world (see also the list of countries by population density). It is considered poor form to campaign for the position of Pope. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the archipelago that comprises greater Japan. Upon the Pope's death, either body's proceedings are suspended, to be resumed only upon the order of the new Pope.

Naha on Okinawa, in the Ryukyu archipelago, is over 600 km to the southwest of Kyushu. Universi Dominici Gregis explicitly provides that even if a Synod or ecumenical council is in session at the time of a Pope's death, it may not perform the election. The main islands (sometimes referred to as the Home Islands), running from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu (or the mainland), Shikoku, and Kyushu. Under present procedure, however, the Synod may only meet while called by the Pope. Japan, a country of islands, extends along the eastern or Pacific coast of Asia. Proposed reforms include a plan to replace the College of Cardinals as the electoral body with the Synod of Bishops, which includes many more members. Japan also has an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and nuclear weapons program. Since the College of Cardinals is a small body, some have suggested that the electorate should be expanded.

The disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of crude oil and natural gas. If the Sub-Dean also cannot participate, the senior Cardinal Bishop participating performs the functions. They are the four southern islands of the Kuril Islands, administered by Russia, as well as the Liancourt Rocks (Dokdo in Korean, Takeshima in Japanese), administered by South Korea, and the Senkaku Islands (Diaoyutai in Chinese), administered by Japan, but claimed by both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan). If the Dean is not entitled to participate in the conclave due to age, his place is taken by the Sub-Dean, who is also always a Cardinal Bishop. Japan has territorial disputes over islands that were controlled by Japan before World War II. Several duties are performed by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, who is always a Cardinal Bishop. [1]. Under Universi Dominici Gregis, the cardinals are to be lodged in a purpose-built edifice, the Domus Sanctæ Marthæ, but are to continue to vote in the Sistine Chapel.

Japan is a member state of the United Nations, the G8, and the G4 nations, and is a major donor in international aid and development efforts, donating 0.19% of its Gross National Income in 2004. Universi Dominici Gregis is the sole constitution governing the election; it abrogates all constitutions previously issued by Popes. It seems likely that the law will be amended to permit women to ascend the throne (as eight have in Japan's recorded history). The procedures outlined, however, in many cases date to much earlier times. The Imperial Household Law of 1947 limits succession to males, but there is ongoing and widespread public discussion of the Japanese Imperial succession controversy. In 1996, John Paul II promulgated a new Apostolic Constitution, called Universi Dominici Gregis (Shepherd of the Lord's Whole Flock), which, unless superseded by later regulations, now governs the election of the Pope's successor. His son, Crown Prince Naruhito, married Masako Owada, who gave birth to a girl, Princess Aiko, in 2001. Popes have often written "election constitutions" fine-tuning the rules for the election of their successors: Pope Pius XII's Vacantis Apostolicae Sedis of 1945 governed the conclave of 1958, Pope John XXIII's Summi Pontificis Electio of 1962 that of 1963, and Pope Paul VI's Romano Pontifici Eligendo of 1975 those of 1978.

He assumed the throne after the death of his father, Hirohito, on January 7, 1989. Since 1846, when the Quirinal Palace was used, the Sistine Chapel has always served as the location of the election. Akihito (明仁) is the current and 125th Emperor of Japan. Within Rome and the Vatican City, different locations have been used for the election. In academic studies, Japan is generally considered a constitutional monarchy, based largely upon the British system. Since the Western Schism, however, elections have always been held in Rome (except in 1800, when Neapolitan troops occupying Rome forced the election to be held in Venice), and normally in the Vatican City (which has, since the Lateran treaties of 1929, been recognised as an independent state). Though his official status is disputed, on diplomatic occasions the emperor tends to behave (with widespread public support, it should be noted) as though he were a head of state. The location of the conclaves was not fixed until the fourteenth century.

Sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people by the constitution. Several reforms were instituted by John Paul II in 1996. He performs ceremonial duties and holds no real power; not even emergency reserve powers. In 1904, Pius X issued a constitution consolidating almost all of the previous ones, making some changes. The Constitution of Japan defines the emperor to be "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". Gregory XV issued two bulls that covered the most minute of details relating to the election; the first, issued in 1621, concerned electoral processes, while the other bull, issued in 1622, fixed the ceremonies to be observed. The Imperial Household of Japan is headed by the emperor. In 1562, Pius IV issued a papal bull that introduced regulations relating to the secrecy of the ballots and other procedural matters.

The liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist Democratic Party of Japan. Gregory X's strict regulations were later abrogated in 1276 by Adrian V, but after he was elected in 1294 following a two-year vacancy, Celestine V restored them. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. During the conclave, no cardinal was to receive any ecclesiastical revenue. The Prime Minister must be a member of the Diet, and is designated by his colleagues. Food was to be supplied through a window; after three days of the meeting, the cardinals were to receive only one dish a day; after five days, they were to receive just bread and water. The Cabinet is composed of a Prime Minister and ministers of state, and is responsible to the Diet. No cardinal was allowed to be attended by more than one servant unless ill.

There is universal adult (over 20 years old) suffrage, with a secret ballot for all elective offices. Cardinals were to be secluded in a closed area; they were not even accorded separate rooms. The Diet consists of a House of Representatives (Lower House or Shūgi-in) containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors (Upper House or Sangi-in) of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. To reduce further delays, Gregory X introduced stringent rules relating to the election procedures. The Constitution of Japan states that the nation's "highest organ of state power" is its bicameral parliament, the National Diet. As a result, the cardinals soon elected Gregory X, ending an interregnum of almost three years. Despite a major stock market crash in 1990, from which the country is recovering gradually, Japan remains a global economic power today and is now bidding for a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. When the cardinals still failed to elect a Pope, the city refused to send in any materials except bread and water.

assistance, Japan achieved spectacular growth to become one of the largest economies in the world. After the death of Clement IV in 1268, the city of Viterbo was also forced to resort to the seclusion of cardinals in the episcopal palace. After the occupation, under a program of aggressive industrial development and U.S. The method was adopted, for example, in 1216 by the city of Perugia and in 1241 by the city of Rome. In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution, seeking international cooperation and emphasizing human rights and democratic practices. To resolve them, authorities often resorted to the forced seclusion of the cardinal electors. forces still retain important bases in Japan, especially in Okinawa. In earlier years, papal elections sometimes suffered prolonged deadlocks.

Official American occupation lasted until 1952, although U.S. He declared that any cardinal who communicated his government's veto would suffer excommunication, or expulsion from Church communal life. The war cost millions of lives in Japan and other countries, especially in East Asia, and left much of the country's industries and infrastructure destroyed. Cardinal Sarto, who chose the name Pius X, abolished the right of the veto. Emperor Hirohito, however, was given immunity and retained his title. Consequently, the College chose Giuseppe Cardinal Sarto with 55 votes. The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal was convened on May 3, 1946 to prosecute Japanese war crimes, including atrocities like the Nanking Massacre. Austria became the last nation to exercise the power in 1903, when Cardinal Puzyna de Kosielsko informed the College of Cardinals that Austria opposed the election of Mariano Cardinal Rampolla (who had received 29 out of 60 votes in one ballot).

The Japanese eventually agreed to an unconditional surrender to the Allies on August 15, 1945 (V-J Day). After the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, its place was taken by Austria (which was a part of the Empire and whose ruler was also Holy Roman Emperor). After a long campaign in the Pacific Ocean, Japan lost its initial territorial gains, and American forces moved close enough to begin strategic bombing of Tokyo, Osaka, and other major cities, as well as the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. No vetoes could be employed after an election. Roosevelt demanded that Japan withdraw its forces from China, Japan attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor as well as British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia, bringing itself and the United States into World War II. Therefore, the nation's cardinals did not announce the use of the power until the very last moment when the candidate in question seemed likely to get elected. In 1941, after US President Franklin D. The power of exclusion was, by the same custom, only exercisable by any nation once.

During this period, Japan invaded China, occupying Manchuria in 1931, and continued its expansion into China proper in 1937, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War, which lasted until the end of World War II. By an informal convention, each nation was allowed to veto not more than one papal candidate; any decision made by a nation was conveyed by one of its cardinals. In 1936, however, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, joining with Germany and Italy to form the Axis alliance. From the sixteenth century, certain Catholic nations were allowed to exercise the so-called "right of exclusion" or "veto". World War I enabled Japan, which fought on the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence in Asia, and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. In 1119, the Holy Roman Empire acceded to the Concordat of Worms, accepting the papal decision. The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of Japanese expansionism. Gregory VII was the last to submit to the interference of the Holy Roman Emperors; the breach between him and the Holy Roman Empire caused by the Investiture Controversy led to the abolition of the Emperor's role.

By 1910, Japan controlled Korea, Taiwan, and the southern half of Sakhalin. In 1059, the same papal bull that restricted suffrage to the cardinals also recognised the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor, at the time Henry IV, but only as a "concession" made by the Pope, thus establishing that the Holy Roman Emperor had no authority to intervene in elections except where permitted to do so by papal agreements. These reforms helped transform the Empire of Japan into a world power, defeating China in the First Sino-Japanese War and Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. In 898, riots forced John IX to recognise the superintendence of the Holy Roman Emperor; the local secular rulers in Rome also continued to exert a great influence, especially during the tenth century period known as the pornocracy. Japan adopted numerous Western institutions during the Meiji period, including a modern government, legal system, and military. While the first two Holy Roman Emperors, Charlemagne and Louis, did not interfere with the Church, Lothar claimed that an election could not be conducted except in the presence of imperial ambassadors. Subsequently, the shogunate resigned, and the Meiji Restoration returned the emperor to power. In the 9th century, a new empire—the Holy Roman Empire, which was German, not Italian—came to exert control over the elections of Popes.

The perceived weakness of the shogunate led many samurai to revolt, leading to the Boshin War of 1867 to 1868. Thereafter, the Emperor was only required to be notified; the requirement was dispensed with by Zacharias and by his successors. In 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States forced the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa. Lengthy delays were caused by the sojourns to and from Constantinople; when Benedict II complained about them, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV acquiesced, ending the confirmation of elections by the Emperors. This period of isolation lasted for two and a half centuries, a time of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period, considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture. Once the electors arrived at a choice, they were required to send a delegation to Constantinople requesting the Emperor's consent, which was necessary before the individual elected could take office. Thus, the country became more isolated than ever before. A procedure was adopted whereby officials were required to notify the Exarch of Ravenna (who would relay the information to the Byzantine Emperor) upon the death of a Pope before proceeding to the election.

The Manchus subjugated Korea in 1637, and the Japanese feared an invasion. By the end of the 530s, the Ostrogothic monarchy was overthrown, and power passed to the Byzantine Emperors (who are known as the Eastern Roman Emperors). They also became more conscious of trade with China, especially after the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty. In 532, John II formally recognised the right of the Ostrogothic monarchs to ratify elections. The Tokugawa shogunate, suspicious of the influence of Catholic missionaries, barred all relations with Europeans, except for severely restricted contacts with Dutch merchants at the artificial island of Dejima, near Nagasaki. After the demise of the Western Roman Empire, clout passed to the Ostrogothic Kings of Italy. Toyotomi reunified the country, and following his death, Tokugawa seized power by defeating his enemies at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, moving the capital to Edo (now Tokyo) and founding the Tokugawa shogunate. He ordered that in future cases, controverted elections would be settled by fresh elections; the method was never applied before its lapse.

During the last quarter of this century, Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu established increasingly strong control over the warring states of Japan. In 418, Honorius settled a controverted election, upholding Boniface I over the challenger Eulalius. During the 16th century, traders and missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West (and even China). For example, the Roman Emperors once held considerable sway in the elections of Popes. The "Warring States" or Sengoku period ensued. For the greater part of its history, the Church has been influenced in the choice of its leaders by powerful monarchs and governments. Its successor, the Ashikaga shogunate, was much weaker, and Japan soon fell into warring factions. New rules introduced by John Paul II have formally abolished these long-unused systems; now, election is always by ballot.

The Kamakura shogunate lasted another fifty years. The last election by compromise was that of John XXII (1316), and the last election by acclamation was that of Gregory XV (1621). The shogunate managed to repel Mongol invasions from Mongol-occupied Korea in 1274 and 1281. When voting by scrutiny, the electors cast secret ballots. After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the Hojo, came to rule as regents for the shoguns. When voting by compromise, the deadlocked College of Cardinals would select a committee of cardinals to conduct an election. In the year 1185, general Minamoto no Yoritomo was the first to break the tradition of ruling alongside the emperor in Kyoto, holding power in distant Kamakura. When voting by acclamation, the cardinals would unanimously declare the new Pope quasi afflati Spiritu Sancto (as if inspired by the Holy Spirit).

Japan's medieval era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. Electors formerly made choices by three methods: by acclamation, by compromise and by scrutiny. The imperial court later moved briefly to Nagaoka, and later Heian-kyo (now Kyoto), starting a "golden age" of classical Japanese culture called the Heian period which lasted for nearly four centuries and was characterized by the regency regime of the Fujiwara clan. John Paul's constitution allows election by absolute majority if deadlock still prevails seven ballots after the address by the senior Cardinal Bishop. The Nara period of the 8th century marked the first strong Japanese state, centered around an imperial court, in the city of Heijo-kyo (now Nara). In 1996, John Paul II restored the two-thirds majority requirement, but not the prohibition on cardinals voting for themselves. This paved the way for the dominance of Confucian philosophy in Japan until the 19th century. In 1945, however, Pius XII dispensed with the procedure, compensating for the change by increasing the requisite majority to two-thirds plus one.

Through the Taika Reform Edicts of 645 AD, Japanese intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government in accordance with the Chinese administrative structure. Cardinals were not allowed to vote for themselves; an elaborate procedure was adopted to ensure secrecy while at the same time preventing cardinals from voting for themselves². Nonetheless, for most of Japan's history, real power has been in the hands of the court nobility, the shoguns, the military, or, more recently, prime ministers. A simple majority sufficed for an election until 1179, when the Third Lateran Council increased the required majority to two-thirds. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was Emperor Ojin, though the date of his reign is uncertain. In the current day, any baptised male, except for a heretic or schismatic can be elected by the College of Cardinals.¹ Women have never been eligible for the papacy; claims that there was a female Pope, including the supposed Pope Joan, are fictitious. It is claimed that he started a line of emperors that remains unbroken, to this day. Prior to Benedict and John Paul, the last Pope to hail from a nation outside Italy was the Dutchman (ethnically German) Adrian VI, elected in 1522.

According to traditional Japanese mythology, Japan was founded in the 7th century BC by the ancestral Emperor Jinmu, a direct descendant of the Shinto deity Amaterasu. There is no requirement that a Bishop of Rome be Italian; the present incumbent, Benedict XVI, is German, and his predecessor, John Paul II, was Polish. Though Japan did not appear in written history until 57 AD, when it is first mentioned in Chinese records as the nation of "Wa" (in Chinese, "Wo"), or "dwarf state", these chronicles tell a much different and much more legendary history of Japan, deriving the people of Japan from the gods themselves. In 1378, Urban VI became the last Pope who was not a cardinal at the time of his election. The beginning of Japanese historical writing culminated in the early 8th century AD with the massive chronicles, Kojiki (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712 AD) and Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720 AD). In 1179, the Third Council of the Lateran reversed these requirements, once more allowing laymen to be elected (this does not mean the person elected remains an unordained layman while serving as pope; see acceptance and proclamation below). The Japanese did not start writing their own histories until the 5th and 6th centuries AD, when the Chinese writing system, Buddhism, advanced pottery, ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks from Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. In 769, the candidate was required to be a clergyman; the requirements later became more stringent, with only cardinals being eligible to be elected.

Most people were farmers; others were fishermen, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists. Originally, lay status did not bar election to the Bishopric of Rome. Based upon the Chinese model, they developed a central administration and an imperial court system and society was organized into occupation groups (Ritsuryo). Of the Church's current 182 cardinals, 116 are under eighty years of age, and thus qualified to vote on a papal successor. The Yamato court, concentrated in the Asuka region, suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands, increasing their power. John Paul II also changed the rule so that cardinals that were under eighty on the day the Holy See become vacant but turn eighty before the conclave start still have a vote. The Yayoi period was succeeded around 250 AD by the Kofun era, characterized by the establishment of strong military states centered around powerful clans. Even this limitation was disregarded by John Paul II.

As the population increased and society became more complex, they wove cloth, lived in permanent farming villages, constructed buildings of wood and stone, accumulated wealth through landownership and the storage of grain, and developed distinct social classes. In 1970, Paul VI decreed that cardinals over the age of eighty were ineligible to be part of the electorate, and also increased the limit on the number of cardinal electors to 120. The start of the Yayoi period around 300 BC, marked the influx of new technologies such as rice farming, shamanism, and iron and bronze-making brought by migrants from the Korean peninsula and China. Having fallen to as few as seven members in the 13th century, the College grew until in 1587, Sixtus V limited the cardinalate to 70 members (six Cardinal Bishops, 50 Cardinal Priests, and 14 Cardinal Deacons) but Popes since John XXIII have paid no heed to the guideline. This led to the manufacture of the earliest-known form of pottery in the world. Furthermore, it was declared that no council would have authority over the Pope, and that a papal election could not be undone. Around that time, however, the Jomon people started to make clay vessels, decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks (Jomon means "patterns of plaited cord"). Since that election, the cardinals have remained the sole electors of Popes.

Weaving was still unknown and clothes were often made of bark. The Council then proceeded to elect Pope Martin V, ending the Papal Schism. The first signs of civilization appeared around 10,000 BC with the Jomon culture, characterized by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer lifestyle of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of agriculture. The conflict was only resolved by the Council of Constance (which met between 1414 and 1418), which received the abdication of one claimant and deposed the two others. Other evidence also suggests that some may have later come by sea from Southeast Asia during a period of migration toward the Pacific Ocean. The Council of Pisa met in 1409 to resolve the conflict, but only managed to elect a third claimant. Archaeological research indicates that the earliest inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago migrated over land bridges from Northeast Asia about 30,000 years ago. Later, in the same year, the cardinals moved to Fondi and elected another rival Pope.

. After the death of the French-born Pope Gregory XI in that year, Romans rioted to ensure the election of an Italian; the cardinals complied by choosing Pope Urban VI. The Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, are southwest of the main islands. The cardinals' exclusive right to elect the Pope was questioned during the Papal Schism that began in 1378. The largest and main islands are, from north to south, Hokkaidō, Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū. A Synod of the Lateran held in 1139 removed the requirement that the assent of the lower clergy and the laity be obtained. One of the world's leading industrialized countries, the "Land of the Rising Sun" is composed of over 3,000 islands. The most senior cardinals, the Cardinal Bishops, were to meet first and discuss the candidates before summoning the Cardinal Priests and Cardinal Deacons for the actual vote.

To the west is Korea (North and South), to the north Russia, and to the southwest China and Taiwan. A major change was introduced in 1059, when Nicholas II decreed that the cardinals were to elect a candidate, who would take office after receiving the assent of the clergy and laity. Japan (Japanese: 日本, Nihon or Nippon, literally "sun source") is an East Asian country surrounded by the Pacific Ocean, the Sea of Japan, the Philippine Sea, the East China Sea, and the Sea of Okhotsk. The Lateran Synod held in 769 officially abolished the theoretical suffrage held by the Roman people, though in 862, a Synod of Rome restored it to Roman noblemen. Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, Vintage, 1990 (ISBN 0679728023). The lack of clarity in the election procedures often resulted in the election of rival Popes or antipopes. Totman, A History of Modern Japan, 2d ed., Blackwell, 2005 (ISBN 1405123591). The candidate would then be submitted to the people for their approbation; Romans typically signified approval (or disapproval) tumultuously.

Press, 2003 (ISBN 0521529255). The true electoral body was the clergy, which did not cast votes, instead selecting the Pope by general consensus or by acclamation (with bishops supervising the process). Sugimoto et al., An Introduction to Japanese Society, Cambridge Univ. Later, however, this method was replaced in Rome and elsewhere with that of election by the clergy and laity of the community and the bishops of neighbouring dioceses. Reischauer, Japan: The Story of a Nation, McGraw-Hill, 1989 (ISBN 0075570742). The earliest bishops were most likely chosen by the founders of their communities. Lonely Planet Japan, Lonely Planet Publications, 2003 (ISBN 1740591623). Procedures similar to the present system were introduced in 1274 with the Second Council of Lyons.

Norton, 1996 (ISBN 0393314502). The procedures relating to the election of the Pope have undergone almost two millennia of development. Johnson, Japan: Who Governs?, W.W. . Japan At A Glance, Kodansha, 1998 (ISBN 4770020805). Popes may make rules relating to election procedures; they may determine the composition of the electoral body, replacing the entire College of Cardinals if they were to so choose. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0674003349). In earlier times, members of the clergy and the people of Rome were entitled to participate, in much the same way as the laity helped determine the choice of bishops throughout the Catholic Church during this early period.

Henshall, A History of Japan, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0312233701). Since the year 1059, the College of Cardinals has served as the sole body charged with the election of the Pope, the source of the term Prince of the church for cardinals. De Mente, The Japanese Have a Word For It, McGraw-Hill, 1997 (ISBN 0844283169). They are now held in the Sistine Chapel in the Palace of the Vatican. Press, 1993 (ISBN 0521403529). Conclaves have been employed since the Second Council of Lyons decreed in 1274 that the electors should meet in seclusion. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Japan, Cambridge Univ. The electors form a conclave, from the Latin phrase cum clave ("with a key"), referring to the "locking away" of the electors during the process.

(ISBN 4770023847). A papal election is the method by which the Roman Catholic Church fills the office of Bishop of Rome, whose incumbent is known as the Pope, the head of the Church. Japan a Profile of Nation, Kodansha International, 1999. (ISBN 0226195589). Eisenstadt, Japanese Civilization: A Comparative View, University of Chicago 1995.

N. S. Typhoons are common; in 2004 a record 10 typhoons reached the main islands. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.

Nansei-shoto (Ryukyu) or Southwest Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Pacific Ocean: Experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind. Seto Inland Sea (Seto-naikai): The Mountains of the Chugoku and Shikoku regions block the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year. Precipitation is light.

Central Highlands (Chuo-kochi): A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the Föhn wind phenomenon. Sea of Japan: The northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.

Hokkaido: Hokkaido has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Lowest elevation: Hachinohe Mine -130 m (-426 ft). Highest peak: Mount Fuji: 3776 m (12,385 ft). Coastline: 29,751 km.

Major islands: Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, Shikoku. Area: 377,835 km² (including 3,091 km² of territorial water).