China

. Tattooing is also used as a form of cosmetic surgery, like permanent cosmetics, to hide or neutralize skin discolorations. Other areas of technological study:. An example is the symbol (Φ) tattooed in the ears of pet cats and dogs in Australia to indicate that they have been neutered.
. Tattoos may be located anywhere on the animal's body including its ear (common for small mammals) or inner lip (bears). In addition to the cultural innovations mentioned above, technological inventions from China include:. Animals are marked with symbols or alphanumeric characters for identification.

Calligraphy, sushi, and bonsai are all millennia-old art that later spread to Japan and Korea. Tattooing is also used in managing wildlife and livestock. See Chinese painting for more details. Japanese people commonly soak the tattoo in hot water to clean it. The great variation and beauty in the Chinese landscape is often the inspiration for great works of Chinese art. Some tattooists will recommend leaving the covering on for several hours or overnight, and then gently washing the area. Because of its association with elite scholar-official bosses, it later on became commercialized, where works by famous artists became prized possessions. Immediately after completing the tattoo, most tattooists will cover the area to keep out dirt and keep the tattoo from oozing into clothes; sometimes the area is wrapped in clingfilm, paper towel, poultry packs (that come in chicken packs) or gauze.

Calligraphy is a major art-form in China, above that of painting and music. New tattoos are wounds which must be looked after properly. Chinese characters have had many variants and styles throughout the Chinese history, and were "simplified" in the mid-20th century on mainland China. Most tattoo artists recommend and sell them. The sheng is the basis for several Western free-reed instruments. These products are safe, efficient, and dermatologically tested. The Chinese have created numerous musical instruments, such as the zheng, xiao, and erhu, that have spread throughout East and Southeast Asia, and especially areas under its influence. In the last few years, cosmetic and pharmaceutical aftercare products have been developed for the tattoo world.

(See List of Chinese authors, and List of Chinese language poets). There is also the possibility of allergic reactions to these products, and application to a new tattoo can cause skin reactions leading to loss of ink and permanent damage to a tattoo. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities. The majority of these products contain petroleum or lanolin which, when applied to a new tattoo, can clog skin pores and actually retard the body's healing process. Chinese philosophers, writers, and poets have been, for the most part, highly respected, and played a key role in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. These products were intended to prevent cuts, burns, scrapes, and abrasions from becoming infected and not for the healing of new tattoos. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position. Tattoo artists have had to recommend a variety of products available from local drug stores.

Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. However, many of the most notable tattooists do not belong to any association. Nevertheless it was a system distinct from the European system of blood nobility. Membership in professional organizations, or certificates of appreciation/achievement, may imply that the artist is aware of the latest trends in equipment and sterilization. This led to a meritocracy, though in practice this was possible only among those who were not female or too poor to afford test preparation, as doing well still required tutorship. A reputable artist will:. For centuries, opportunity for economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on the imperial examinations. The studio should have all of the following:.

Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant and more, from oracle bones to Qing edicts, are discovered each day. See the sections under "Risks" above. Members of royalty frequently participated in these discussions. They also cite a well documented case Tattoo-Induced Skin Burn During MR Imaging by Wagle and Smith. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on these works in both printed and written form. However, research by Shellock and Crues MR Safety and the American College of Radiology White Paper reports adverse reactions to MRI and tattoos in a very small number of cases. Before that, manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist) were manually written by ink brush (previously scratching shells) and distributed. In any case, today the majority of professional tattoos do not contain metal particles and therefore raise no concern for MRI or x-ray.

Chinese literature has a long and prolific continuous history, in part because of the development of printmaking during the Song Dynasty. The television show MythBusters tested the theory, and concluded that there is no risk of interaction between tattoo inks and MRI. They regularly protest against their suppression, both domestically and internationally. Allegedly, the magnetic fields produced by MRI machines could interact with these metal particles, potentially causing burns or distortions in the image. The Falun Gong says that it has approximately 70-100 million followers, which is a bit higher than estimates by outside groups, though exact numbers are unknown. There has been concern expressed about the interaction between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedures and tattoo inks, some of which contain trace metals. The Falun Gong itself denies that it is a cult or a religion. The local department of health regulates tattoo studios in many jurisdictions, and should accept requests for records and violation histories of tattoo parlors.

In recent years, Falun Gong, a spiritual practice drawing upon Buddhism and Taoism, has attracted great controversy after the government of the People's Republic of China labeled it an evil cult and began an attempt to eradicate it. The following precautions can also reduce the risk of infection: shops should appear clean; sinks with hot water and soap should be available in the bathroom as well as in the studio; tattooists should wash their hands regularly and wear latex gloves; surfaces should be cleaned with disinfectant and floors should appear clean; proper procedures for sterilizing equipment should be followed strictly. Historically, Taoism and Buddhism have been the dominant religions of Chinese society, and continue to be so in Chinese societies outside direct PRC control. People who have a compromised immune system, including those who have no spleen, should consult a physician before getting a tattoo or body piercing. While the People's Republic of China is officially atheist it does allow religion under strict supervision. Infections include surface infections of the skin, Staphylococcus aureus, infections that can cause cardiological damage, sexually transmitted diseases, and some forms of hepatitis. The major religions of China are:. Infection from tattooing in clean and modern tattoo studios is rare.

Other than Standard Mandarin, spoken variants are usually not written; the exception is Standard Cantonese, which is sometimes written as Written Cantonese in informal contexts. This is not necessarily useful, however, because it may take years of exposure before an allergic reaction occurs. Classical Chinese is no longer the predominant form of written Chinese, though it continues to be a part of high school curricula and is hence intelligible to some degree to many Chinese people. Some tattoo artists do small test patches of pigments to be used allowing a week or two for the client to develop a negative reaction before proceeding with the actual tattoo. In addition, another, more ancient written standard, Classical Chinese, was used for writing Chinese by the literati for thousands of years before the 20th Century. People with allergies should think carefully about getting a tattoo because of the risk of anaphylactic shock (hypersensitive reaction), which can be life threatening. The various spoken varieties of Chinese share a common written standard, "Vernacular Chinese" or "baihua", which has been used since the early 20th Century and is based on Standard Mandarin, the standard spoken language, in grammar and vocabulary. Allergic reactions to latex should also be stated before being tattooed or pierced.

The Han speak several mutually unintelligible tongues, classified by modern linguists as being separate languages, but regarded within the Chinese languages as "dialects" or "local languages" (topolects) within a single Chinese language (the word for "area languages" has an implication of dialect rather than a separate language, although on the basis of use, these topolects can be found to be separate and mutually unintelligible, and are so classified by many linguists). It should go away with time, but can be very uncomfortable, so one should still consult a doctor. As a response to the problems this is causing, the government of the PRC has enacted a birth control policy, commonly known as the One-child policy. A reaction to the green soap will result in itchy redness that may swell. The lack of birth control and promotion of population growth during the rule of Mao Zedong resulted in a demographic explosion, culminating in over 1.3 billion people today. People who are allergic to green soap should let their tattooist know before being tattooed, because the area is cleaned before and during the tattoo with green soap and it will ultimately get into the tattoo. With the global human population currently estimated at about 6.4 billion, China is home to approximately 20%, or one-fifth of the world's population. People who are sensitive or allergic to certain metals may react to pigments in the skin by becoming swollen and/or itchy, oozing of clear fluid called sebum is also common.

China's overall population is 1.3 billion. Allergic reactions to tattoo pigments are uncommon except for certain brands of red and green. The government of the People's Republic of China now officially recognizes a total of 56 ethnic groups, of which the largest is the Han Chinese. Most reputable tattoo shops use fresh disposable needles for each client and sterilize reusable instruments between clients using an autoclave as well as employing universal precautions, such as washing the hands, wearing latex, nitrile or vinyl gloves and the thorough cleaning of counters and other work surfaces, and elimination of cross contamination. The term Zhonghua Minzu is sometimes used to describe a notion of a "Chinese nationality" transcending ethnic divisions. Since tattoo instruments come in contact with blood and bodily fluids, diseases may be transmitted if the instruments are used on more than one person without being sterilized. Many times in the past millenia many foreign groups have, in turn, shaped Han language and culture, for example the queue is a pig tail hairstyle strictly enforced by the Manchurians on the Han populace. In addition, it is important that cross contamination not occur, this is why many counties require that tattooists have bloodborne pathogen training as is provided through the Red Cross.

Several previously distinct ethnic groups have been Sinicized into the Han, causing its population to increase dramatically; at the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, though still identifying as Han. [2]. Throughout history, many ethnic groups have been assimilated into neighbouring ethnicities or disappeared without a trace. Inmates will be trained to staff and operate the tattoo parlors once six of them open successfully. In terms of numbers, however, the pre-eminent ethnic group in China is the Han, which is a group so diverse in its culture and language that some conceive of it as a larger overarching group bringing together many smaller, distinct ethnic groups sharing common traits in language and culture. However there is a program underway in Canada as of the summer of 2005 that opens legitimized tattoo parlors in prison, this is intended to reduce the risk of infections and may also provide the inmates with a marketable talent. Over a hundred ethnic groups have existed in China. In most prisons there is a significant risk of illness due to tattooing being done without following universal precautions, including such blood-borne diseases as HIV and hepatitis.

In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaux. Risk reduction in the body arts requires single use items including gloves and needles. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. Permanent tattooing of any form carries small risks, including of infection, allergy, disease, and stress or phobic reactions. The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin. Glycolic acid is also used for facial peels; when used for tattoo removal, a lower percentage mix is used. The southern zone (within which lies Guangzhou and other southern provinces) has a generally subtropical climate. This method supposedly scars less than lasering.

The central zone (within which Shanghai is situated) has a generally temperate climate. A newer method of removal is by tattooing glycolic acid in to the skin with a tattoo machine, the acid pushes the ink to the surface of the skin in the scab, the scab is later removed. The northern zone (within which lies Beijing) has a climate with winters of Arctic severity. The tattoo is retraced with the chemical. The climate of China varies greatly. An old method of tattoo removal includes hydrogen peroxide loaded into a tattoo machine. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which separate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam. Black ink is most readily broken down by the laser, and unprofessional tattoos done at home are the easiest ones to remove, due to the low quality of ink used, as well as the inneffective manner in which they were applied.

Dust blows all the way to southern China, Taiwan, and has even been measured on the West Coast of the United States. Overall, green-based ink is the most difficult to remove. Due to a prolonged drought and perhaps poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China. It also may not be entirely effective in leaving unblemished skin, due to the fact that tattoos also scar the skin to varying degrees, depending on how the tattoo was applied, the way the skin healed, and the area that was tattooed. The northwest also has high plateaus among more arid desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. The procedure can be expensive, and very painful (some say more so than the original tattoo) and often requires many repeated visits to remove a small tattoo. To the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, with the Himalayas, containing the highest point Mount Everest. After this, the patients body then absorbs the broken-down ink and the skin heals once more.

In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea are found extensive and densely populated alluvial plains; the shore of the South China Sea is more mountainous and southern China is dominated by hill country and lower mountain ranges. The laser reacts with the ink in the tattoo, and breaks it down. Most of China's arable lands lie along the two major rivers, the Yangtze and the Huang He, and each are the centers around which are founded China's major ancient civilizations. Tattoos can be wholly or partially removed by cosmetic surgical techniques, most commonly through the use of lasers. As a result, principal rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze (central), the Huang He (central-east), and the Amur (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River, Mekong River, and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific. This ink is reportedly quite safe for use, and claims to be FDA approved for use on wildlife that may enter the food supply. China is composed of a vast variety of highly different landscapes, with mostly plateaus and mountains in the west, and lower lands on the east. The technical name is BIOMETRIX System-1000, and is marketed under the name "Chameleon Tattoo Ink".

China is also traditionally thought of as comprising North China (北方) and South China (南方), the geographic boundary between which north and south is largely generalized as Huai River (淮河) and Qinling Mountains (秦嶺). Recently, a blacklight-reactive tattoo ink using PMMA microcapsules has surfaced. China proper is generally thought to be bounded by the Great Wall and the edge of the Tibetan Plateau; Manchuria and Inner Mongolia are found to the north of the Great Wall of China, and the boundary between them can either be taken as the present border between Inner Mongolia and the northeast Chinese provinces, or the more historic border of the World War II-era puppet state of Manchukuo; Xinjiang's borders correspond to today's administrative Xinjiang; and historic Tibet is conceived as occupying all of the Tibetan Plateau. In a survey[1], many pigments were found to be used among professional tattooists:. These territories are separated by borders that are vague at best, and do not correspond well to contemporary political divisions. Iron oxide pigments are used in greater extent in cosmetic tattooing. The Manchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China cemented the incorporation of these territories into China. For the tattooing, a wide range of dyes and pigments can be used; from inorganic materials like titanium dioxide and iron oxides to carbon black, azo dyes, and acridine, quinoline, phthalocyanine and naphthol derivates.

Various dynasties also exhibited expansionism by engaging in incursions into peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. Both methods, silver nitrate and henna, can take up to two weeks to fade from the skin. Historically, most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as China proper. Other forms of temporary "tattoos" are henna tattoos, also known as Mehndi, and the marks made by the stains of silver nitrate on the skin when exposed to ultraviolet light. Recent divisions also include prefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns and townships (see below for examples). Temporary tattoos are easily removed with soap and water or oil-based creams, and are intended to last a few days. Below that, there have been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, and counties. They are generally applied to the skin using water to transfer the design to the surface of the skin.

Top levels included circuits and provinces. Temporary tattoos are a type of body sticker, like a decal. Historically, top-level political divisions of China have altered as the administration changed. In addition, tattooing of the gingiva from implantation of amalgam particles during dental filling placement and removal is possible and not uncommon. Since then, the de jure sovereignty of Taiwan has been under dispute between the PRC, and the now democratic ROC and Taiwan independence supporters. These are particularly difficult to remove as they tend to be spread across several different layers of skin, and scarring or permanent discoloration is almost unavoidable depending on the location. At the end of the second Sino-Japanese War in 1945, Japan relinquished the sovereignty of the island in the San Francisco Peace Treaty, and the Republic of China took over. Similarly, a traumatic tattoo occurs when a substance such as asphalt is rubbed into a wound as the result of some kind of accident or trauma.

Taiwan was subsequently ceded to Japan after the first Sino-Japanese War in 1895. This can also occur with substances like gunpowder. In 1683 after the surrender of the Kingdom of Tungning established by Koxinga, Taiwan including the Pescadores became a part of the Qing Empire, originally as one prefecture, then two, and later a province. According to George Orwell, workers in coal mines would wind up with characteristic tattoos owing to coal dust getting into wounds. The Qing Empire reduced the territorial value of the Great Wall of China as a barrier of China proper after they merged their homeland (Manchuria) north of the wall with China proper south of it. Permanent cosmetics are tattoos that enhance eyebrows, lips (liner or lipstick), eyes (shadow, mascara), and even moles, usually with natural colors as the designs are intended to resemble makeup. Since the end of the 19th century, China has tried to reinterpret this relationship as suzerainty or suzerainty-dependency, but this no longer has any real conception in modern international political theories. See main article at permanent makeup.

The Chinese thought that the barbarians attached themselves to the virtue of the Emperor, while the foreign governments sometimes disagreed. The unit rapidly and repeatedly drives the needles in and out of the skin, usually 50 to 3,000 times a minute. Along with provincial administrators, some foreign monarchs sent envoys to offer gifts to the Emperor of China and the Emperor returned compliments to them. Ink is inserted into the skin via a group of needles that are soldered onto a bar, which is attached to an oscillating unit. The Qing Dynasty included parts of modern Russian Far East and Central Asia (west of Xinjiang). The most common method of tattooing in modern times is the electric tattoo machine. Since then, the territory has expanded outward in all directions, and was largest during the Tang, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. Traditional Japanese tattoos (irezumi) are still "hand-poked," that is, the ink is inserted beneath the skin using non-electrical, hand-made and hand held tools with needles of sharpened bamboo or steel.

The Zhou Dynasty, which preceded the unification of China by Shi Huangdi, was originally the region around the Yellow River. Some cultures create tattooed marks by "tapping" the ink into the skin using sharpened sticks or animal bones. One of the oldest and most prominent of them, the China Support Network (CSN), was founded in 1989 by a group of concerned Americans and Chinese activists in response to Tiananmen Square. This may be an adjunct to scarification. aim to bring democratic reform to China and relentlessly protest human rights violations that occur in the People's Republic of China. Some tribal cultures still create tattoos by cutting designs into the skin and rubbing the resulting wound with ink, ashes or other agents. A number of NGOs based in the U.S. (Branding would not be considered a tattoo since no ink or dye is inserted).

Today, however, there is much more freedom in intellectual thought in non-political areas and propaganda, while still continuing, has lessened. Such tattoos are performed by veterinarians and the animals are anaesthetized to prevent pain. The attempted eradication of the Falun Gong movement is also held by its supporters to be motivated by fear of Falun Gong's growing influence. Pets, show animals, thoroughbred horses and livestock are sometimes tattooed with identification marks, and certain of their body parts (for example, noses) have also been tattooed to prevent sunburn. In 1989, a popular demonstration held in Beijing at Tiananmen Square was violently put to an end by the CPC. Tattoos are also placed on animals, though very rarely for decorative reasons. Examples of this include the jailing of political opponents and journalists, general control of the press, regulation of religions and other non-party organizations, censorship of the press, literature and film, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. European sailors were known to tattoo the crucifixion on their backs to prevent flogging as a punishment as at that time it was a crime to deface an image of Christ.

Nonetheless, the Communist Party still has absolute control over political aspects of society, and it continuously seeks to eradicate threats to its rule. The best known is the ka-tzetnik identification system for Jews in part of the concentration camps during the Holocaust. However, post-1978 reforms have led to the relaxation, in varying degrees, of party control over many areas of society. People have also been forcibly tattooed for a variety of reasons. From the beginning, the PRC has been a dictatorial one-party state under the Communist Party. Some Māori still choose to wear intricate moko on their faces. Meanwhile, Mao Zedong, the leader of the communists, proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949 in Beijing, saying China had stood up. Today, people choose to be tattooed for cosmetic, religious and magical reasons, as well as a symbol of belonging to or identification with particular groups (see Criminal tattoos).

more environmentally friendly) and Blues are generally regarded as more conservative. Human history shows that tattoos have served in many diverse cultures as rites of passage, marks of status and rank, symbols of religious and spiritual devotion, decorations for bravery, sexual lures and marks of fertility, pledges of love, punishment, amulets and talismans, protection, and as the marks of outcasts, slaves and convicts. However, Greens are generally more liberal (i.e. This survey was conducted online between July 14 and 20, 2003 by Harris Interactive(R) among a nationwide sample of 2,215 adults. formal independence issue. Democrats are more likely to have tattoos (18%) than Republicans (14%) and Independents (12%) while approximately equal percentages of males (16%) and females (15%) have tattoos. But rather than the usual conservative-liberal policy distinctions that are the hallmarks of most democracies around the world, the main cleavage in ROC politics is the unification with China in the long-run vs. Regionally, people living in the West (20%) are more likely to have tattoos.

Today, the political scene in the ROC is vibrant, with active participation by all sectors of society. The highest incidence of tattoos was found among the gay, lesbian and bisexual population (31%) and among Americans ages 25 to 29 years (36%) and 30 to 39 years (28%). Beginning in the late 1970s, Taiwan began the implementation of full, multi-party, representative democracy in the territories still under ROC control (i.e., Taiwan Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province). A recent Harris Poll finds that 16% of all adults in the United States have at least one tattoo. By early 1950, the CPC had defeated the Kuomintang on the mainland, and the ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Current estimates suggest one in seven or over 39 million people in North America have at least one tattoo. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China (CPC), many provisions of the 1947 ROC constitution were never put into actual practice on the mainland. Tattoos are more popular now than at any time.

Ironically, both the Kuomintang and the CCP have heavy Leninist influences. Tattoos can have additional negative associations for women; "tramp stamp" and other similarly derogatory slang phrases are sometimes used to describe a tattoo on a woman's lower back. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang with heavy Leninist influences. At the same time, members of the US military have an equally established and longstanding history of tattooing to indicate military units, battles, etc., and this association is also widespread among older Americans. In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing and implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. This cultural use of tattoos predates the widespread popularity of tattoos in the general population, so older people may still associate tattoos with criminality. Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the USA many prisoners and criminal gangs use distinctive tattoos to indicate facts about their criminal behavior, prison sentences, and organizational affiliation.

After Yuan's downfall, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally-recognized, but virtually powerless, national government seated in Beijing (thus failing to fit the definition of a state). It is widely believed that one of the initiation rites in becoming a triad member is silently withstanding the pain of receiving a large tattoo in one sitting, usually performed in the traditional "hand-poked" style. Before long, Yuan attempted to have himself proclaimed emperor of a new dynasty; however, he died soon of natural causes before fully taking power over all of the Chinese empire. At least according to popular belief, most triad members in Hong Kong have a tattoo of a black dragon on the left bicep and one of a white tiger on the right; in fact, many people in Hong Kong use "left a black dragon, right a white tiger" as a euphemism for a triad member. However, Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who had defected to the revolutionary cause, soon forced Sun to step aside and took the presidency for himself (formally it was a negotiation where Sun agreed to step aside for what was then perceived as a strong reformer, Yuan). Tattoos, particularly full traditional body suits, are still popularly associated with the yakuza (mafia) in Japan. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party), was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. For example, many businesses such as gyms, hot springs and recreational facilities in Japan still ban people with visible tattoos.

On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China (ROC) was established, signaling the end of the Manchu-dominated Qing Empire. In some cultures, tattoos still have negative associations, despite their increasing popularity and are generally associated with criminality in the public's mind; therefore those who choose to be tattooed in such countries usually keep their tattoos covered for fear of reprisal. Chinese was the official language, though periods of Mongol and Manchu conquest saw the arrival of Mongol and Manchu as alternate official languages. Tattoos can therefore impair a wearer's career prospects, particularly when inked on places not typically covered by clothing, such as hands or neck. Luoyang, Chang'an (today's Xi'an), Nanjing, and Beijing are the four cities most commonly designated as capitals of China over the course of history. Some employers, especially in professional fields, still look down on tattoos or regard them as contributing to an unprofessional appearance. (see section "Geography, Political" below for examples),. The first twin coil machine, the predecessor of the modern configuration, was invented by another Englishman, Alfred Charles South of London, in 1899.

Political relations with dependencies (tributary kingdoms) were maintained by international marriages, military aids, treaties, and gifts. The first coil machine was patented by Thomas Riley in London, 1891 using a single coil. This happened especially since the emperor often was many layers of power removed from the outside world, making him susceptible to manipulation because his sources for information could manipulate that information causing him to make incorrect decisions, especially when their age at becoming emperor often had no bottom limit, with rule passing heriditarily but also given "in trust" to another relative. Modern tattoo machines use electromagnetic coils. Political power sometimes fell into the hands of powerful officials, eunuchs, or imperial relatives, often at the expense of a child heriditary emperor. O'Reilly's machine was based on the rotary technology of the electric engraving device invented by Thomas Edison. The emperor also consulted civil and martial ministers, especially the prime minister. The modern electric tattoo machine is far removed from the machine invented by Samuel O'Reilly in 1891.

However the emperor had ultimate, supreme, and unquestionable authority as the political and religious leader of China. Nevertheless, in most western countries tattooing is rather seen by the general public as a minority choice, hence usually on less visible parts of the body (even in the case of some adepts who transform a large part of their skin into a 'tattoo gallery'; the contrary can thus by a non-conformist statement), except for certain circles (such as sailors or oil rig drillers, certain military units and clubs), impulsive kick choices (unwisely done while intoxicated or as a dare) or fashionable rages. The territory varied with several expansions and contractions depending on the strength of each emperor and dynasty. Carrying on the family tradition, Winston Churchill was himself tattooed. After the Qin, China experienced about 13 more dynasties, many of which continued the extensive system of kingdoms, dukedoms, earldoms, and marquisates. Winston Churchill's mother, Lady Randolph Churchill, not only had a tattoo of a snake around her wrist, which she covered when the need arose with a specially crafted diamond bracelet, but had her nipples pierced as well. This ended with the Qin Dynasty unification, during which the office of the emperor was set up, and a system of bureaucratic administration established. Aside from her consort Prince Albert, there are persistent rumours that Queen Victoria had a small tattoo in an undisclosed 'intimate' location; Denmark's king Frederick was filmed showing his tattoos taken as a young sailor.

This is also the time of the beginnings of Confucian philosophy and that of many other philosophies that greatly influenced Chinese philosophy-political thought. There, it was not uncommon for members of the social elite to gather in the drawing rooms and libraries of the great country estate homes after dinner and partially disrobe in order to show off their tattoos. Although there was a central king who held nominal power, and powerful hegemons sometimes held considerable influence, each state was ruled as an independent political entity. The tattooing craze spread to upper classes all over Europe in the nineteenth century, but particularly in England where it was estimated in Harmsworth Magazine in 1898 that as many as one in five members of the gentry were tattooed. The Chinese civilization consisted of a patchwork of several states, each ruled by a king (王), duke (公), marquess (侯), or earl (伯). King Alfonso of modern Spain also has a tattoo. Before unification by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, "China" did not exist as a coherent entity. Taking their sartorial lead from the British Court, where King Edward VII followed King George V's lead in getting tattooed; King Frederik IX of Denmark, the King of Romania, Kaiser Wilhelm II, King Alexandar of Yugoslavia and even Czar Nicholas of Russia, all sported tattoos, many of them elaborate and ornate renditions of the Royal Coat of Arms or the Royal Family Crest.

Another is a partial skeleton from Minatogawa being only 18,000 years old. George's sons, The Duke of Clarence and The Duke of York were also tattooed in Japan while serving in the British Admiralty, solidifying what would become a family tradition. The earliest evidence examples of fully modern humans in China come from Liujiang, China where a cranium dates 67,000 years BCE. On a trip to Japan he also received a dragon on the forearm, from the needles of an acclaimed Japanese tattoo master. This model is known as Mitochondrial Eve Hypothesis. The English Royal Court must have been fascinated with the Tahitian chief's tattoos because King George V himself got inked with the 'Cross of Jerusalem' when he traveled to the Middle East in 1862. However it is now more widely accepted that all modern humans genetically share a direct ancestor, a female nicknamed "Mitochondrial Eve" from Eastern Africa 150,000 years BCE. Cook went on to write, "This method of Tattowing I shall now describe...As this is a painful operation, especially the Tattowing of their Buttocks, it is performed but once in their Lifetimes.".

sapiens having archaic features. This is done by inlaying the Colour of Black under their skins, in such a manner as to be indelible.". erectus to H. In the Ship's Log Cook recorded this entry : "Both sexes paint their Bodys, Tattow, as it is called in their Language. erectus populations (known as "multiregional") as some evidence in ancient bones show a transitional change from H. It was in Tahiti aboard the Endeavour, in July of 1769, that Cook first noted his observations about the indigenous body modification and is the first recorded use of the word tattoo. It remains a controversial subject to whether fully modern humans evolved from separate H. In the process sailors and seamen re-introduced the practice of tattooing in Europe and it spread rapidly to seaports around the globe.

By less than 100,000 years ago all proto-human populations disappeared as modern humans took over or drove other human species into extinction. Many of Cook's men, ordinary seamen and sailors, came back with tattoos, a tradition that would soon become associated with men of the sea in the public's mind and the press of the day. By 100,000 to 50,000 years ago modern human beings settled in all parts of the Old world (including the New World, Americas 25,000 to 11,000 BCE). In turn, Cook brought back with him a tattooed Tahitian chief, whom he presented to King George and the English Court. Homo sapiens idaltu). Banks was a highly regarded member of the English aristocracy and had acquired his position with Cook by putting up what was at the time the princely sum of some ten thousand pounds in the expedition. Fully modern humans (Homo sapiens) are believed to originally have evolved roughly 200,000 and 168,000 years ago in Ethiopia or Southern Africa (ei. Cook's Science Officer and Expedition Botanist, Sir Joseph Banks, returned to England with a tattoo.

erectus settled into various areas in the Old World. Crew members of those voyages returned with more than just fabulous tales of what they had seen, many of the sailors returned with tattoos. By 2 million years ago the first wave of migration from the species in association with H. When Cook and his men returned home to Europe from their voyages to Polynesia, the salons of Paris and London were soon abuzz with tales of the 'tattooed savages' that Cook and his men had seen on their travels and discovered in previously unknown lands. Originally it is thought that these early hominis first evolved in Africa during the Pleistocene and that human evolution first took place in Africa expanding 7 million years. Between 1766 and 1779, Captain James Cook made three voyages to the South Pacific, the last trip ending with Cook's death in Hawaii in February, 1779. erectus have been studied since the late 18th century to 19th century in various areas of Eastern Asia including Indonesia (in particular the Island of Java) and Malaysia. See irezumi.

Evidence of primitive stone tool technology and animal bones in association to H. The Water Margin had a major influence on tattooing in Japan. One particular cave in Zhoukoudian (now known as Peking) has fossilised evidence dating to 300,000 and 550,000 years old. In addition, Chinese legend has it that the mother of Yue Fei, the most famous general of the Song Dynasty, tattooed the words 精忠報國 (pinyin: jin zhong bao guo) on his back with her sewing needle before he left to join the army, reminding him to "repay his country with pure loyalty". Archeological evidence suggests that the earliest occupants in China date as long as 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago by an ancient human relative (hominin) known as Homo erectus. Tattooing has also been featured prominently in one of the Four Classic Novels in Chinese literature, Water Margin, in which at least two of the 108 characters, Shi Jun and Yan Qing, are described as having tattoos covering nearly the whole of their bodies. Significant disputes persist as to the nature and extent of China, possible Chinese reunification and the political status of Taiwan. One reading of Leviticus is to apply it only narrowly to this specific practice contemporary with the book's writing.

The PRC has historically resisted the ROC's identification of itself as Taiwan, especially in light of the movement supported by residents of Taiwan and others who advocate Taiwan's identity as an independent political entity. In essence, people were literally carrying with them a reminder of the recently deceased in the form of tattoos created by ash being rubbed into shallow wounds cut or slashed into the body, usually the forearms. On the other hand, the ROC—while never formally renouncing its earlier claims or changing official maps that show its territory as including both the modern-day PRC, Mongolia and Tibet—has moved away from this former identity representing its rule over all of China, and increasingly identifies itself as Taiwan. It was a sign of respect for the dead and a symbol of reverence and a sense of the profound loss for the newly departed; and it is surmised that the ash that was rubbed into the self-inflicted wounds came from the actual funeral pyres that were used to cremate bodies. The PRC does not recognize the ROC, as it claims to have succeeded the ROC as the legitimate governing authority of all of China including Taiwan. An ancient practice in the Middle East involved people cutting themselves and rubbing in ash during a period of mourning after an individual had died. The United Kingdom and Portugal transferred their colonies of Hong Kong and Macau on the southern Chinese coast to the PRC in 1997 and 1999, respectively. Some Christians, Jews and Muslims believe Leviticus 19:28 prohibits believers from getting tattoos: Do not cut your bodies for the dead or put tattoo marks on yourselves. A more literal translation of Leviticus is: Do not cut your bodies for the dead nor put marks upon you. The practice proscribed by Leviticus may or may not be tattooing directly (though it is certainly some form of bodily modification).

Meanwhile, the disorganized and potentially corrupt ROC government of the Kuomintang fled to Taiwan, where it continued to be recognized as the legitimate government of all China by the Western bloc and the United Nations until the 1970s, when most nations and the UN switched recognition to the PRC. According to Robert Graves in his book The Greek Myths, tattooing was common amongst certain religious groups in the ancient Mediterranean world, which probably contributed to the prohibition of tattooing in Leviticus 19:28 in the Old Testament. The CPC established a communist state—the People's Republic of China—that laid claim to be the successor state of the Republic of China. The Man of Pazyryk was also tattooed with dots that lined up along the spinal column (lumbar region) and around the right ankle. The latter ended in 1949 with the Communist Party of China in control of mainland China. Their tattooing involved animal designs carried out in a curvilinear style. The following three decades were a period of disunion — the Warlord Era, the Sino-Japanese War, and the Chinese Civil War. 300 BC) were extracted from the permafrost of Altaï in the second half of the 20th century (the Man of Payzyrk, during the 1940s; one female mummy and one male in Ukok plateau, during the 1990s).

In 1912, after a prolonged period of decline, the institution of the Emperor of China disappeared and the Republic of China was established. Three tattooed mummies (c. Image:China2C Mao .jpg. Mair, The Tarim Mummies, London, 2000), some of them could date from the end of the 2nd millennium before our era. Although secretly supporting the rebels, the Empress, Ci Xi, made public efforts to aid foreign forces in suppressing the uprising. Mallory and V H. This second conflict was the Boxer Rebellion which aimed to repel Westerners. Still relatively unknown (the only current publications in Western languages are those of J P.

Later, a second major rebellion took place, although this latter uprising was considerably smaller than the cataclysmic Taiping Civil War. Tarim Basin (West China, Xinjiang) revealed several tattooed mummies of a European physical type. Prior to this conflict a number of Islamic Rebellions, especially in Central Asia, had occurred. "Ötzi the Iceman", dated circa 3300 BC, exhibits therapeutic tattoos (small parallel dashes along lumbar and on the legs). Although the imperial forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history - costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the First World War). Tattooing has been a Eurasian practice since Neolithic times. The civil war was started by an extremist believer in a school of thought partly influenced by Christianity who believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Tattooing was widespread among Polynesian peoples, and in the Philippines, Borneo, Africa, North America, South America, Mesoamerica, Japan, and China.

Most prominent of these was the Taiping Civil War which lasted from 1851 to 1862. The Ainu, the indigenous people of Japan, wore facial tattoos. However the primary cause of the decline of the Chinese empire was not European and American interference, but rather the consequence of a series of internal upheavals. Tattooing has been a nearly ubiquitous human practice. See Imperialism in Asia. Within traditional indigenous cultures, tattooing most often takes place within the context of a rite of passage between adolescence and adulthood. This set the stage for the 19th century, in which China adopted a defensive posture against European imperialism while itself engaging in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia. A decline in traditional tribal tattooing practices usually came after first contact with Europeans and the resultant efforts to convert aboriginal and indigenous people to Western religous and cultural practices, which usually held tattooing to be a "pagan" or "heathen" activity.

In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage over the peoples of Central Asia, with which it had been at war for several centuries, while simultaneously falling behind Europe in that respect. In many traditional cultures tattooing has enjoyed a resurgence, as native people are once again proud of their cultural heritage. However, these restrictions proved ineffective against the assimilation of Manchus into the Chinese identity and culture. A majority of the respondents—54 percent—said tattoos were a form of art, while 40 percent said they were not. For example, after the foreign Qing (Manchus) conquered China, because they were ever suspicious of the Han Chinese, the Qing rulers put into effect measures aimed at preventing the absorption of the Manchus into the dominant Han Chinese population. residents to give their opinions of tattoos as an art form. Oftentimes regime change was violent and strongly opposed and the ruler class needed to take special measures to ensure their rule and the loyalty of the overthrown dynasty. An August, 2005 telephone poll conducted by Zogby International asked 1,042 U.S.

After the Ming dynasty, came the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, which lasted until the overthrow of Puyi in 1911. Movie stars, models, popular musicians and sports figures are just some of the people in the public eye who are commonly tattooed, which in turn has fueled the acceptance of tattoos within mainstream popular culture. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty, which lasted until 1644. The growth in tattoo culture has seen the influx of new artists into the industry, many of whom have technical and fine art training, and that coupled with advancements in tattoo pigments and the ongoing refinement of the equipment used for tattooing has led to a marked improvement in the quality of tattoos being produced. The Mongols, under Kublai Khan, established the Yuan Dynasty. Tattoos have become increasingly popular in recent decades in many parts of the world, particularly in North America, Japan, and Europe. The Song Dynasty fell to the invading Mongols in 1279. Tattoo designs that are mass produced and sold to tattoo artists and studios and displayed in shop are known as flash.

For a long period of time, especially between the 7th and 14th centuries, China was one of the most advanced civilizations in the world in technology, literature, and art. This usage is gaining support, with mainstream art galleries holding exhibitions of tattoo designs and photographs of tattoos. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, China reached its golden age. Most tattoo enthusiasts refer to tattoos as tats, ink, art or work, and to tattooists as artists. In 580, China was reunited under the Sui. . A period of disunion followed again. In Japanese the word used for traditional designs or those that are applied using traditional methods is irezumi ("insertion of ink"), while "tattoo" is used for non-Japanese designs.

After the fall of authoritarian Qin Dynasty in 206 BC came the Han Dynasty which lasted until 220 AD. The word is traced to the Tahitian tatu or tatau, meaning to mark or strike (the latter referring to traditional methods of applying the designs). This state, however, did not last for long, as its legalist approach to control soon led to widespread rebellion. Tattoos are a type of body modification. They were all unified under one emperor in 221 BC by Qin Shi Huang, ushering in the Qin Dynasty, the first unified centralized Chinese state. In technical terms, tattooing is micro-pigment implantation. The Shang were in turn invaded by the Zhou (12th to 5th centuries BC), whose centralized authority was slowly eroded by the ceding of state-like authority to warlords ruling small states; eventually, in the Spring and Autumn period, many strong independent states, in continuous war, paid but nominal deference to the Zhou state as the Imperial centre. A tattoo is a design or marking made by the insertion of a pigment into punctures or cuts in the skin.

However, the first confirmed dynasty is the Shang, who settled along the Huang He river, dating from the 18th to the 12th centuries BC. American Journal of Roentgenology: Article. But since then, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the possible existence of the Xia dynasty at the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts. and Smith, M. Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the existence of the Xia Dynasty. Tattoo-Induced Skin Burn During MR Imaging Wagle, W.A. The first dynasty according to Chinese historical sources was the Xia Dynasty. American Journal of Roentgenology White Paper.

Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing independently, the others being ancient Mesopotamia (Sumerians), India (Indus Valley Civilization), and, some hold, Ancient Egypt—though it may have been learned from the Sumerians. and Crues, J.V. China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. MR Safety and the American College of Radiology Shellock, F.G. In many contexts it may be more appropriate to speak of "mainland China" (中國大陸,zhōngguó dàlù in Mandarin), especially when contrasting it with other, politically different regions like Hong Kong, Macau, and territories administered by the Republic of China (Taiwan). Russian Criminal Tattoo Encyclopaedia Danzig Baldaev, ISBN 3882439203. Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, more akin to the classical usage of Zhongguo, or to the meaning of the "Han ethnic group", who make up the bulk of Mainland China. Tattoo Art Magazine.

Informally, in economic or business contexts, "the Greater China region" (大中華地區) refers to Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Total Tattoo Book Amy Krakow, ISBN 0446670014. In many contexts, "China" is commonly used to refer to the People's Republic of China or mainland China, while "Taiwan" is used to refer to the Republic of China. The Tattoo Encyclopedia: A Guide to Choosing Your Tattoo Terisa Green, ISBN 0743223292. The term "China" can narrowly mean China proper, or, often, China proper and Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang, a combination essentially coterminous with the 20th and 21st century political entity China; the boundaries between these regions do not necessarily follow provincial boundaries. Ink: The Not-Just-Skin-Deep Guide to Getting a Tattoo Terisa Green, ISBN 0451215141. The Western "China", transliterated to Shina (支那) was also used by Japanese from the nineteenth century, but is now obsolete and is regarded as an offensive term by the Chinese. Renaut, 2004, French and English abstract).

In any circumstance, the word China passed through many languages along the Silk Road before it finally reached Europe and England. PhD Thesis on body-marking in Antiquity (L. Alternate theories on the origin of the word "China" exist. Renaut, 2004, French and English abstract). Despite the fact that the Qin dynasty was short-lived and was often regarded as overly tyrannical, it unified the written language in China and gave the supreme ruler of China the title of "Emperor", hence, the subsequent Silk Road traders would identify themselves by that name. Comparative study about Ötzi's therapeutic tattoos (L. English and many other languages use forms of the name China (and the prefix Sino-), which is believed to have derived from the name of the Qin dynasty that first unified the country, even though it is not completely resolved and the origins are still controversial to an extent [1]. provide clear aftercare instructions and products.

Their disparate histories are collectively the history of Zhongguo. always use fresh ink for each session, placing small amounts in disposable containers which are used for one client only. Thus it is asserted that all 56 officially recognized ethnic groups are Zhongguo ren (中國人), or Zhongguo people. always use properly sterilized non-disposable and disposable supplies. The Republic of China, as it controlled mainland China, and later, the People's Republic of China, have used Zhongguo as an entity existing theoretically to mean all the territories and peoples within their political control as well as those outside of it (people in the Republic of China on Taiwan now usually use Zhongguo to refer to the PRC and use Taiwan to refer to itself). always open new, sterile needle packages in front of the client, and always use new, sterile or sterile disposable instruments. The term Zhongguo came to be related to geographic, cultural and political identity and less to ethnic origin. Artists will change gloves one or more times during sessions.

It was used in this manner from the tenth century onwards by the competing dynasties of Liao, Jin and Song. wash his or her hands with water and soap or an approved sanitizing agent, and wear latex gloves. In this way Zhongguo came to represent political legitimacy. be willing and able to answer questions. The southern dynasties, for their part, recently exiled from the north, called the Northern Wei Lu (虜), meaning "criminal" or "prisoner". ensure that the customer is satisfied with and sure about the design before applying it. For example, the Xianbei called their Northern Wei regime Zhongguo, contrasting it with the Southern Dynasties, which they called the Yi (夷), meaning "barbarian". refuse to tattoo minors, intoxicated people, people with contraindicated skin conditions, or those incapable of consent due to mental incapacity.

This was doubly so after the loss of the Yellow River valley, the cradle of Chinese civilization, to these peoples. be knowledgeable, courteous and helpful. During the period of division after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the term Zhongguo was subjected to transformation as a result of the surge of nomadic peoples from the northern frontier. accessible facilities for washing the hands with hot water and soap. During the Han Dynasty and before, Zhongguo had three distinctive meanings:. It is also a good idea to ask for recent spore test results. Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet, and the island of Taiwan, over time, came to be dominated (to a greater or lesser extent) by, or officially ruled by, imperial China, and are often included as a part of Zhongguo, though acceptance or denial of such claims remains politically controversial, especially where Zhongguo means PRC. an autoclave - usually required by law, and necessary for sterilizing tools.

Thus Zhongguo quickly came to include areas farther south, as the cultural and political unit (not yet a "nation" or "country" in the modern sense) spread in a southerly direction, including the Yangtze River and Pearl River systems, and by the Tang Dynasty it even included "barbarian" regimes such as the Xianbei and Xiongnu. sharps containers for old needles. The "Chinese" thus defined their nation as culturally and politically distinct from - and as the axis mundi of surrounding nations; a concept that continued well into the Qing Dynasty, although being continually redefined while the central political influence expanded territorially, and its culture assimilated alien influences. biohazard containers for blood-stained objects. During the Spring and Autumn Period, it was used only to describe the states politically descended from the Western Zhou Dynasty, in the Yellow River (Huang He) valley, to the exclusion of states such as Chu and Qin. Allowed in all cosmetics: Pigment White 6 (titanium dioxide), Pigment Blue 15, Pigment Black 7 (carbon black), Pigment Brown 6 (iron oxide), Pigment Red 101 (iron(III) oxide), Jernoxid (iron(II) oxide), Pigment Yellow 42 (iron oxide-hydroxide), Sudan Red, Food Yellow 13 (Quinoline Yellow WS), Mangan Violet (manganese ammonium pyrophosphate), Food Red 17 (Allura Red AC), Food Blue 2 (Brilliant Blue FCF), Acid Red 87 (Eosin Y). The term has not been used consistently throughout Chinese history, however, and carries certain cultural and political connotations both positive and negative, some ideological, and early states considered part of Chinese history are not called "Zhongguo". Allowed in all cosmetics except those used around the eyes: Pigment Green 7.

Zhong (中) means "middle" or "center" while guo (国 or 國) means "country," "kingdom," "state," or "land", referring to the claim that China stood at the centre of that society's "known world", surrounded by lesser tributary states. Allowed in all cosmetics that do not come in contact with mucous membranes: Pigment Yellow 1, Pigment Orange 43. China is called Zhongguo in Mandarin Chinese (Simplified: 中国, Traditional: 中國; also romanized as Jhongguo or Chung-kuo), which is usually translated as "Middle Kingdom", but could also be translated as "Central State" or "Central Country". Allowed for cosmetics with only temporary contact with skin: Pigment Violet 23, Pigment Red 122. . Substances not approved for cosmetic use: Pigment Orange 36, Pigment Yellow 74, Pigment Red 170, Pigment Yellow 97, Pigment Red 146, Pigment Brown 25, Pigment Red 266. Since then, the ROC has maintained administrative control over Taiwan, the Pescadores, several islands off the coast of Fujian province, and some islands in the South China Sea.

After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist Party of China under Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, forcing the Nationalists to retreat and relocate the ROC government to the island of Taiwan, which it had governed since the end of World War II. The imperial system in China ended with the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC) under Sun Yat-sen in 1912; however, the next four decades of ROC rule were marred by warlord control, the Second Sino-Japanese War during which the Empire of Japan occupied large parts of China, and the Chinese Civil War which pitted Chinese Nationalists against the Communist forces. By the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, however, China's political, economic, and military influence declined relative to the growing regional power of Japan and the influence of Western powers. For centuries, Imperial China was also one of the world's most technologically advanced civilizations, and East Asia's dominant cultural influence, with an impact lasting to the present day throughout the region.

The country's territorial extent expanded outwards from a core area in the North China Plain, and varied according to its changing fortunes to include multiple regions of East, Northeast, and Central Asia. With one of the world's longest periods of mostly uninterrupted civilization and the world's longest continuously used written language system, China's history has been largely characterized by repeated divisions and reunifications amid alternating periods of peace and war, and violent imperial dynastic change. With over one-fifth of the world's population, the majority of China exists today as a state known as the People's Republic of China, but it also refers to a long-standing civilization comprising successive states and cultures dating back nearly 5,000 years. China (listen (help·info); Traditional Chinese: 中國; Simplified Chinese: 中国; Hanyu Pinyin: Zhōngguó; Wade-Giles: Chung-kuo) is a geographical region in East Asia.

Military innovations include the crossbow and the grid sight, crossbow stirrup, repeating crossbows, poison gas (smoke from burning dried mustard), tear gas made from powdered lime, relief maps for battle planning, manned kites, fire lance, rockets, gunpowder incendiaries, gunpowder grenades, proto-handguns, various gun-related ammunition types and the cannon. Chinese astrology and constellations were often used for divination. Alchemy was Taoist chemistry, very different from modern chemistry. Nevertheless, there were several doctors who have increased the understanding of internal anatomy by violating this autopsy taboo.

However, this autopsy was unacceptable, because of the common belief that a corpse should not be violated. An example is acupuncture, although it is somewhat controversial in some quarters. They continue to play a growing role in the international medical community, and have achieved recognition over the last few decades in the West as alternative and complementary therapies. Traditional medicine and surgery were highly advanced at various points in history, and in some fields are still seen as innovative.

Studies in biology have been extensive, and historic records are consulted even today, such as pharmacopoeias of medicinal plants. "Pascal's" Triangle was discovered by mathematician Liu Ju-Hsieh, long before Pascal was born. The decimal system was used in China as early as the 14th Century BC. Pi (π) was calculated by 5th century mathematician Zu Chongzhi to the seventh digit.

The main applications of mathematics in traditional China were architecture and geography. Claimed numbers of followers of the Falun Dafa are also regarded as unreliable.). Falun Gong - exact numbers unknown (claimed not to be a "religion", though from a scholarly perspective is a spiritual practice. Islam - 1% to 2%.

Christianity - 2 to 4% (from Western sources; the Chinese official number is much smaller than 1%). Buddhism - exact numbers unknown [about 8%]. Taoism - exact numbers unknown. Confucianism - exact numbers unknown.

The Sanguo Zhi records the following monologue: "If we can lead the host of Wu and Yue (the area of southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang) to oppose Zhongguo, then we should break off relations with them soon." In this sense, the term is synonymous with Hua (華) and Xia (夏). The area now called the North China Plain. Five are in Zhongguo.". Three are with the Man and Yi barbarians.

The Historical Records states: "Eight mountains are famed in the empire. Territories under the direct authority of the "central" authorities. The Book of Poetry explicitly gives this definition. The area around the capital or imperial domain.