Venus

Conversely, other sects consider Venus to be some form of paradise or an advanced secret base for angels/aliens to operate from. IUPAC officially prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications, although several IUPAC publications use the spelling aluminum.[8]. Its extremely high surface temperature and impenetrable cloud cover cause people to believe that the fires of Hell burn on the surface, obscured from our earthly view. Hence their periodic table includes both, but places aluminium first [7]. There are some religious sects who believe that Hell may be located on Venus. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990, but three years later recognised aluminum as an acceptable variant. Until it was penetrated by probes, Venus's opaque cloud layer gave science fiction writers free rein in imagining the planet's surface, and they frequently imagined it to be Earthlike. Consequently it is the more common of the two spellings in global terms, even though there may be more users of aluminum in the English-speaking world.

The association with sex and femininity is supposed to relate to the period of 266 days between the conjunction and maximum elongation of Venus, which corresponds more or less to the length of human pregnancy. Outside English, the "ium" spelling is widespread: the word is aluminium in French and German, and identical or similar forms are used in many other languages. Alchemists constructed the symbol from a circle (representing spirit) above a cross (representing matter). However, in Canada both spellings are common, due to the multiple influences on the language of its proximity to the United States, its British colonial past and the large number of native French speakers. The Venus symbol also represents femininity, and in ancient alchemy stood for copper. Elsewhere in the English-speaking world the spelling aluminium predominates, and the spelling aluminum is largely unknown. Its symbol is the sign also used in biology for the female sex, a stylized representation of the goddess Venus's hand mirror: a circle with a small cross underneath (Unicode: ♀). In the United States, the spelling aluminium is largely unknown, and the spelling aluminum predominates.

To the Jews it is known as Noga ("shining"), Ayeleth-ha-Shakhar ("deer of the dawn") and Kochav-ha-'Erev ("star of the evening"). In the English-speaking world, the spellings (and associated pronunciations) aluminium and aluminum are both in common use in scientific and nonscientific contexts. The Maasai people in Africa named the planet Kileken, and have a myth about it called "The Orphan Boy." The Morning Star was called the Bearer of Light ("phōsphoros" or "eōsphoros" in Greek and "Lucifer" in Latin, a term later used of the fallen angel cast out of heaven, see Isaiah 14:12). In 1926, the American Chemical Society officially decided to use aluminum in its publications, and American dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as a British variant. Venus was known to ancient Babylonians around 1600 BC, and to the Mayan civilization (the Mayans developed a religious calendar based on Venus's motion) and must have been known long before in prehistoric times, given that it is the third brightest object in the sky after the Sun and Moon. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling aluminum became the standard in North America, even though the Webster Unabridged Dictionary of 1913 continued to use the -ium version. When viewed from Earth, the successive conjunctions of Venus plot the points of a pentagram around the Sun in an eight-year cycle (see Orbit). It has consequently been suggested that the spelling on the flyer was a simple spelling mistake rather than a deliberate choice to use the -um spelling.

It is most likely to have originated from the observations of prehistoric astronomers. However in 1892 Charles Martin Hall used the -um spelling in an advertising handbill for his new efficient electrolytic method for the production of aluminium, despite using the -ium spelling in all of his patents filed between 1886 and 1903. The pentagram has long been associated with the planet Venus and the worship of the goddess Venus, or her equivalent. Curiously, the United States adopted the -ium for most of the 19th century with aluminium appearing in Webster's Dictionary of 1828. Some speculate that the mysterious dark streaks seen in the atmosphere through ultraviolet filters could be colonies of microbes absorbing sunlight for their metabolism. Nevertheless, -um spellings for elements were not unknown at the time: platinum, which had been known to Europeans since the 16th century, molybdenum, which was discovered in 1778, and tantalum, which was discovered in 1802, all have spellings ending in -um. Recent spectrographic observations have found carbonyl sulfide in the atmosphere of Venus, a chemical that is very difficult to make via natural processes and usually associated with life. This had the advantage of conforming to the -ium suffix precedent set by other newly discovered elements of the period: potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium (all of which Davy had isolated himself).

Some speculate that spores from Earth could hitch a ride on small passing asteroids and survive a trip to Venus's atmosphere. 72, 1812). However, the cloud cover supports fairly life-friendly conditions at higher altitudes. Review VIII. Space probes in the 1960's made it pretty clear that the surface of Venus is far too hot to support life as we know it. (Q. For elongations and other aspects, see Aspects of Venus. Aluminium, for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound.

Venus sky movement patterns have been observed several times within the past 4000 years by a number of people, including the Greeks. The same year, an anonymous contributor to the Quarterly Review objected to aluminum, and proposed the name aluminium. Venus is now known to be moonless. In 1812 he changed the name to aluminum to match its Latin root. These sightings have since been discredited, and are thought to have been either spurious internal reflections, mostly faint stars that happened to be in the right place at the right time, or maybe even asteroids passing by the planet. In 1808, Humphry Davy originally proposed the name alumium while trying to isolate the new metal electrolytically from the mineral alumina. German astronomers called the moon Kleinchen (literally "tiny"), and sporadic sightings by astronomers continued until 1892. For this reason, mercury thermometers are not allowed on many airliners, as aluminium is a common structural component in aircraft.

Venus was once thought to possess a moon, named Neith after the chief goddess of Sais, Egypt (whose veil no mortal raised), first observed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672. Within a few hours, even a heavy structural beam can be significantly weakened. There are about 30 arachnoids on Venus. For example, just a small amount of mercury applied to the surface of a piece of aluminium can break up the aluminium oxide barrier usually present. They are quite different from the volcanoes on earth, and are formed differently too. Care must be taken to prevent aluminium from coming into contact with certain chemicals that can cause it to corrode quickly. There are also other bodies that spout lava, known as arachnoids, for their spiderweb-like look. In any event, if there is any toxicity of aluminium it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime.

Venus has many active volcanoes similar to those on Earth, so there is a lot of lava present on the surface. It has been suggested that aluminium may be linked to Alzheimer's disease, although that research has recently been refuted; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the Alzheimer's damage, not the cause. Because of dryness, Venus's rocks are much harder than Earth's, which leads to steeper mountains, cliffs and other features. Excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants are more likely causes of toxicity. Molecular oxygen is thought to have combined with atoms in the crust (large amounts of oxygen, however, remain in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide). In other people, aluminium is not considered as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts, although the use of aluminium cookware, popular because of its corrosion resistance and good heat conduction, has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general. Therefore, the hydrogen escaped into space because of its low molecular mass; the ratio of hydrogen to deuterium (a heavier isotope of hydrogen which doesn't escape as quickly) in Venus's atmosphere seems to support this theory. Aluminium is one of the few abundant elements that appears to have no beneficial function in living cells, but a few percent of people are allergic to it — they experience contact dermatitis from any form of it: an itchy rash from using styptic or antiperspirant products, digestive disorders and inability to absorb nutrients from eating food cooked in aluminium pans, and vomiting and other symptoms of poisoning from ingesting such products as Rolaids , Amphojel, and Maalox (antacids).

It is thought that Venus originally had as much water as Earth, but that water vapor in the upper atmosphere was split into hydrogen and oxygen due to solar wind. [6]. As a result, solar wind strikes Venus's upper atmosphere without mediation. Welford Castleman Jr (Penn State University). This may be due to its slow rotation being insufficient to drive an internal dynamo of liquid iron. Khanna (Virginia Commonwealth University) and A. Venus's intrinsic magnetic field has been found very weak compared to other planets in the solar system. The research teams were led by Shiv N.

Other recent findings suggest that Venus is still volcanically active in isolated geological hotspots. This discovery is reported to give rise to the possibility of a new characterisation of the periodic table: superatoms. It is theorized that Venus does not have mobile plate tectonics as Earth does, but instead undergoes massive volcanic upwellings at regular intervals that inundate its surface with fresh lava. The researchers also bound 12 iodine atoms to an Al₁₃ cluster to form a new class of polyiodide. Recent results from the Magellan gravity data indicate that Venus's crust is stronger and thicker than had previously been assumed. In the journal Science of 14 January 2005 it was reported that clusters of 13 aluminium atoms (Al₁₃) had been made to behave like an iodine atom; and, 14 aluminium atoms (Al₁₄) behaved like an alkaline earth atom. The interior of Venus is probably similar to that of Earth: an iron core about 3000 km in radius, with a molten rocky mantle making up the majority of the planet. Possibly, the energy released by the decay of ²⁶Al was responsible for the remelting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago.

This suggests that Venus underwent a major resurfacing event in the not too distant geological past. Meteorite research has also shown that ²⁶Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. The oldest features present on Venus seem to be only around 800 million years old, with most of the terrain being considerably younger (though still not less than several hundred million years for the most part). After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further ²⁶Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Nearly 90% of Venus's surface appears to consist of recently (in the geological sense) solidified basaltic lava, with very few meteorite craters. Meteorite fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial ²⁶Al production. Because of this, no impact crater smaller than about 3 km (2 mi) in diameter can form. Cosmogenic ²⁶Al was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites.

Venus' thick atmosphere causes meteors to decelerate as they fall toward the surface, and even large meteors will strike the surface at too low a speed to form an impact crater if they have less than a certain threshold kinetic energy. The ratio of ²⁶Al to ¹⁰Be has been used to study the role of transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 10⁵ to 10⁶ year time scales. With only the exception of Maxwell Montes, all surface features on Venus are named after real or mythological females. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites. Between these highlands are a number of broad depressions, including Atalanta Planitia, Guinevere Planitia, and Lavinia Planitia. ²⁶Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. In the southern hemisphere is the larger Aphrodite Terra, about the size of South America. Only ²⁷Al (stable isotope) and ²⁶Al (radioactive isotope, t_1/2 = 7.2 × 10⁵ y) occur naturally, however ²⁷Al has a natural abundance of 100%.

Ishtar Terra is about the size of Australia. Aluminium has nine isotopes, whose mass numbers range from 23 to 30. The northern highland is named Ishtar Terra and has Venus's highest mountains, named the Maxwell Montes (roughly 2 km taller than Mount Everest) after James Clerk Maxwell, which surround the plateau Lakshmi Planum. Suriname depends on aluminium exports for 70% of its export earnings.[5]. Venus has two major continent-like highlands on its surface, rising over vast plains. In 2004, China was the top world producer of aluminium. 16. Smelters tend to be located where electric power is plentiful and inexpensive, such as South Africa, the South Island of New Zealand, Australia, China, Middle-East, Russia, Iceland and Quebec in Canada.

28, 2002, p. Electric power represents about 20 to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the aluminium smelter. New Scientist, Sept. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells. Some have suggested that microbes exist in the clouds (which also contain droplets of water), and produce these components from water, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. State-of-the-art smelters operate with about 350 kA. It is unclear how the carbonyl sulfide could be formed--it is often a sign of biological activity. Reduction line current for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kA.

Hydrogen sulfide reacts with sulfur dioxide, which implies that some process must be creating these components. The most modern smelters reach approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). The atmosphere also contains hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and carbonyl sulfide (COS). The world-wide average specific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 kilowatt-hours per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 MJ/kg). (This makes the surface temperature hot enough to melt lead.). Aluminium electrolysis with the Hall-Héroult process consumes a lot of energy, but alternative processes were always found to be less viable economically and/or ecologically. The minimal value of the temperature, listed in the table, refers to cloud tops —the surface temperature is never below 400 °C (750 °F). After 5 to 10 years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be reconstructed completely, because the cathodes are completely worn.

The mean surface temperature of Venus, as given by NASA, is 464 °C (864 °F). Cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes. The temperature at the tops of these clouds is approximately −45 °C (−50 °F). The carbon cathode is protected by the liquid aluminium inside the cells. The clouds are mainly composed of sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid droplets and cover the planet completely, obscuring any surface details from the human eye. Contrary to the anodes, the cathodes are not consumed during the operation, since there is no oxygen present at the cathode. However, owing to the high density of the atmosphere at Venus's surface, even such slow winds exert a significant amount of force against obstructions. The anodes in a reduction must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process:.

There are strong 300 km/h (200 mph) winds at the cloud tops, but winds at the surface are very slow, no more than a few miles per hour. This carbon anode is then oxidised by the oxygen. The immense quantity of CO₂ in the atmosphere is what traps the heat by the greenhouse mechanism. At the positive electrode (anode) oxygen gas is formed:. The cloud cover keeps the planet much cooler than it would be otherwise. The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off. A common conceptual misunderstanding regarding Venus is the mistaken belief that its thick cloud cover traps heat, as the opposite is actually true. Here the aluminium ion is being reduced (electrons are added).

In the absence of any greenhouse effect, the temperature at the surface of Venus would be quite similar to Earth. The reaction at the negative cathode is. Thus, despite being closer to the Sun than Earth, the surface of Venus is not as well heated and even less well lit by the Sun. Once the ore is in the molten state, its ions are free to move around. Venus's bolometric albedo is approximately 60%, and its visual light albedo is even greater. Both of the electrodes used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are carbon. This prevents most of the sunlight from ever heating the surface. The electolytic process replaced the Wöhler process, which involved the reduction of anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium.

The solar irradiance is so much lower at the surface of Venus because the planet's thick cloud cover reflects the majority of the sunlight back into space. Previously, the Deville process was the predominant refining technology. Upper atmosphere winds circling the planet approximately every 4 days help distribute the heat to other areas on the surface. This is done using the so-called Bayer process. Owing to the thermal inertia and convection of its dense atmosphere, the temperature does not vary significantly between the night and day sides of Venus despite its extremely slow rotation of less than one rotation per Venusian year, meaning that, at the equator, Venus' surface rotates at a mere 6.5 km/h (4 mph). The aluminium oxide (a white powder) is obtained by refining bauxite, which is red since it contains 30 to 40% iron oxide. This makes Venus's surface hotter than Mercury's, even though Venus is nearly twice as distant from the Sun and only receives 25% of the solar irradiance (2613.9 W/m² in the upper atmosphere, and just 1071.1 W/m² at the surface). Cryolite is a mixture of aluminium, sodium, and calcium fluorides: (Na₃AlF₆).

This enormously CO₂-rich atmosphere results in a strong greenhouse effect that raises the surface temperature more than 400 °C (750 °F) above what it would be otherwise, causing temperatures at the surface to reach extremes as great as 500 °C (930 °F) in low elevation regions near the planet's equator. Cryolite was originally found as a mineral on Greenland, but has been replaced by a synthetic cryolite. Venus has an atmosphere consisting mainly of carbon dioxide and a small amount of nitrogen, with a pressure at the surface about 90 times that of Earth (a pressure equivalent to a depth of 1 kilometer under Earth's oceans); its atmosphere is also roughly 90 times more massive than ours. By this process, the actual operational temperature of the reduction cells is around 950 to 980 °C. This may simply be a coincidence, but there is some speculation that this may be the result of tidal locking, with tidal forces affecting Venus' rotation whenever the planets get close enough together —although the tides raised by Venus on Earth are vanishingly small. Therefore, it is extracted by electrolysis — the aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite and then reduced to the pure metal. In addition to this unusual retrograde rotation, the periods of Venus' rotation and of its orbit are synchronized in such a way that it always presents the same face toward Earth when the two planets are at their closest approach (5.001 Venusian solar days between each inferior conjunction). Direct reduction, with carbon for example, is not economically viable since aluminium oxide has a melting point of about 2000 °C.

[1] If the Sun could be seen from Venus' surface, it would appear to rise in the west and set in the east for a 116.75 day-night cycle (Venus' mean solar day), and a Venusian year would thus last 1.92 Venusian "days". Aluminium is a reactive metal and it is hard to extract it from its ore, aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃). (Pluto and Uranus also have retrograde rotation, though Uranus's axis, tilted at 97.86 degrees, almost lies in its orbital plane.) A slow retrograde rotation is thought to have developed as a consequence of tidal forces, friction, and solar heating of Venus' thick atmosphere. Other sources for recycled aluminium include automobile parts, windows and doors, appliances, containers and other products. Venus has a slow retrograde rotation, meaning it rotates from east to west, instead of west to east as most of the other major planets do. It was, however, a low-profile activity until the late 1960s when the exploding popularity of aluminium beverage cans finally placed recycling into the public consciousness. This will be the closest approach of Venus to earth until December 16th, 2101 when Venus will reach a distance of 0.26431736 AU = 39,541,578 kilometres to earth. A common practice since the early 1900s, aluminium recycling is not new.

On December 16th, 1850, Venus reached the lowest distance to earth since 1800, with a value of 0.26413854 AU = 39,514,827 kilometres. Refining aluminium requires enormous amounts of electricity; recycling it requires only 5% of the energy to produce it. At inferior conjunction, Venus can get closer to earth than any other planet--little more than 100 times the Moon's average distance. Recycling involves simply melting the metal, which is far less expensive than creating it from ore. Another association is with the Moon, because 2920 days equal almost exactly 99 lunations (29.5 * 99 = 2920.5). Recovery of this metal from scrap (via recycling) has become an important component of the aluminium industry. This was known as the Sothis cycle in ancient Egypt, and was familiar to the Maya as well. The very reason for which aluminium is used in many applications is why it is so hard to produce.

Since 5 * 584 = 2920, which is equivalent to 8 * 365 Venus returns to the same point in the sky every 8 years (minus two leap days). The reason is that aluminium is oxidised very rapidly and that its oxide is an extremely stable compound that, unlike rust on iron, does not flake off. After these 584 days Venus is visible in a position 72 degrees away from the previous one. Aluminium is among the most difficult metals on Earth to refine, despite the fact that it is one of the planet's most common. The cycle between one maximum elongation and the next lasts 584 days. Aluminium was, when it was first discovered, extremely difficult to separate from its ore. It is sometimes referred to as the "Morning Star" or the "Evening Star", and when it is visible in dark skies it is by far the brightest star-like object in the sky. Aluminium has been produced in commercial quantities for just over 100 years.

However, when at its brightest, Venus may be seen during the daytime, making it the only heavenly body that can be seen both day and night besides the Moon. Others had to make do with gold ones. As Venus is closer to the Sun than the Earth, it always appears in roughly the same direction from Earth as the Sun (the greatest elongation is 47.8°), so on Earth it can usually only be seen a few hours before sunrise or a few hours after sunset. Napoleon III of France had a set of aluminium plates reserved for his finest guests. Although all planets' orbits are elliptical, Venus's orbit is the closest to circular, with an eccentricity of less than 1%. Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in Earth's crust (believed to be 7.5% to 8.1%), it is very rare in its free form and was once considered a precious metal more valuable than gold. The Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet as the metal star, 金星, based on the Five Elements. [4].

Other less common adjectives include Venerean, Venerian, and Veneran. By 1942, however, new hydroelectric power projects such as the Grand Coulee Dam gave the United States something Nazi Germany could not hope to compete with, namely the capability of producing enough aluminium to manufacture sixty thousand warplanes in four years. Some astronomers use Cytherean, which comes from Cytherea, another name for Aphrodite in ancient Greek Mythology. Germany became the world leader in aluminium production soon after Adolf Hitler seized power. The adjective Venusian is commonly used for Venus, but the Latin adjective is Venereal, which is avoided because of its modern association with sexually transmitted diseases. [3]. Venus is named after the Roman goddess of love, Venus. Aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the Washington Monument, at a time when one ounce cost twice the daily wages of a common worker in the project.

. Hunt of Pittsburgh, PA, started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, renamed to Aluminum Company of America in 1907, later shortened to Alcoa. The planet Venus is also termed Lucifer when appearing as the morning star. Upon approval of his patent in 1889, Hall, with the financial backing of Alfred E. A terrestrial planet, it is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet", as the two are very similar in size and bulk composition. The invention of the Hall-Héroult process in 1886 made extracting aluminium from minerals cheaper, and is now the principal method in common use throughout the world. Venus is the second planet from the Sun. The American Charles Martin Hall of Oberlin, OH applied for a patent (400655) in 1886 for an electrolytic process to extract aluminium using the same technique that was independently being developed by the Frenchman Paul Héroult in Europe.

The terraforming of Venus provides the setting of Pamela Sargent's Venus series, Venus of Dreams, Venus of Shadows, and Children of Venus.. The Frenchman Henri Saint-Claire Deville improved Wöhler's method in 1846 and described his improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more expensive potassium. A more scientifically accurate depiction of the planet is offered in Ben Bova's novel Venus (2000, ISBN 031287216X)-. Berthier who discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it. Also, on her forehead is the planet's symbol. Therefore almanacs and chemistry sites often list Øersted as the discoverer of aluminium.[2] Still it would further be P. Her image colours are gold and orange--similar to the colour of the planet. However, the metal had been produced for the first time two years earlier in an impure form by the Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted.

Venus Love Me Chain and Venus Love and Beauty Shock) represent the idea of love and femininity. Friedrich Wöhler is generally credited with isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum) in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium. In mythology, Venus is the Roman goddess of love (Aphrodite in Greek), therefore, Sailor Venus's attacks and weapons (e.g. In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he named (see Spelling section). In the Japanese anime series, Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon (1992), Sailor Venus is a soldier representing the planet of the same name. In 1761 Guyton de Morveau suggested calling the base alum 'alumine'. In the cartoon Exosquad, terraformed Venus was portrayed as one of the three habitable planets in the solar system (the others being Earth and Mars). Further Joseph Needham suggested finds in 1974 showed the ancient Chinese used aluminium (see "notes" linked above).

Much of the population lived in floating cities in the sky. The ancient Greeks and Romans used salts of this metal as dyeing mordants and as astringents for dressing wounds, and alum is still used as a styptic. In the show, Venus was revealed to be an arid but habitable world. Connections made with these standard industry products are as safe and reliable as copper connections. A presumably terraformed Venus was the setting of one episode of the anime Cowboy Bebop (1998). New alloys are used for aluminium building wire today in combination with aluminium terminations. Clarke's 3001: The Final Odyssey (1997). A properly done crimp, requiring high pressure produced by the proper tool, is tight enough not only to eliminate any thermal expansion of the aluminium, but also to exclude any atmospheric oxygen and thus prevent corrosion between dissimilar metals.

Venus is briefly mentioned in Arthur C. Otherwise, aluminium wiring can be terminated by crimping it to a short "pigtail" of copper wire, which can be treated as any other copper wire. In Jacqueline Susann's Yargo (1979), Venus is inhabited by bees that are as big as horses. Older fixtures of this type are marked "Al/Cu", and newer ones are marked "CO/ALR". Venus is the location of several Starfleet Academy training facilities and terraforming stations in the fictional Star Trek universe (1966–). However, aluminium wiring can be safely used with fixtures whose connections are designed to avoid loosening and overheating. The novel The Land of Crimson Clouds (Strana Bagrovykh Tuch in the original) describes the first successful manned mission to Venus, although a full-scaled colonization of the planet was not initiated until much later (in 2119; see Noon: 22nd Century). As a result, aluminium household wiring has become unpopular, and in many jurisdictions it is not permitted in very small sizes in new construction.

In the Noon Universe created by the Soviet science fiction writers Boris and Arkady Strugatsky, Venus is depicted as an extremely harsh planet covered by strange flora and fauna but also very rich in minerals and heavy metals. In combination, these properties caused connections between electrical fixtures and aluminium wiring to overheat which resulted in several fires. Many science-fiction movies and serials of the '50s and '60s, such as Abbott and Costello Go to Mars, Space Ship Sappy and Space Patrol, have used Venus' namesake goddess and her domain to contrive planetary populations of nubile women welcoming (or attacking) all-male astronaut crews. More specifically:. Venus was the home planet of the Mekon, arch-enemy of the 1950s comic book hero Dan Dare. Unfortunately, many of the wiring fixtures at the time were not designed to accept aluminium wire. Moore, underwater city-states hire mercenary companies and their battleships to fight their wars on the surface. Because of its high conductivity and relatively low price compared to copper at the time, aluminium was introduced for household electrical wiring to a large degree in the United States in the 1960s.

L. If the misalignment is not too severe, once cooled they can be bent back into alignment with no negative consequences; of course, if the frame is properly designed for rigidity (see above), this will require enormous force. In the military science fiction classic Clash by Night (1943) by Henry Kuttner (writing as Lawrence O'Donnell) and C. Stresses from overheating aluminium can be relieved by heat-treating the parts in an oven and gradually cooling, in effect annealing the stresses; this can also result, however, in the part becoming distorted as a result of these stresses, so that such heat-treating of welded bicycle frames, for instance, results in a significant fraction becoming misaligned. Lewis, Perelandra (1943) takes place on Venus (called by the natives Perelandra), the site of a second garden of Eden. For this reason, many uses of aluminium in the aerospace industry avoid heat altogether by joining parts using adhesives; this was also used for some of the early aluminium bicycle frames in the 1970s, with unfortunate results when the aluminium tubing corroded slightly, loosening the bond of the adhesive and leading to failure of the frame. The second book of the Space Trilogy (1938–1945) by C.S. Aluminium also will accumulate internal stresses and strains under conditions of overheating; while not immediately obvious, the tendency of the metal to "creep" under sustained stresses results in delayed distortions, for instance the commonly observed warping or cracking of aluminium automobile cylinder heads after an engine is overheated, sometimes as long as years later, or the tendency of welded aluminium bicycle frames to gradually twist out of alignment from the stresses accumulated during the welding process.

Lovecraft and Kenneth Sterling short story 'In the Walls of Eryx' (1939), takes place on Venus, but is not considered part of the Cthulhu Mythos. Forming operations where a blow torch is used therefore requires some expertise since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. P. Even a relatively routine workshop procedure involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium, as opposed to steels, will melt without first turning red. The H. Often, aluminium's sensitivity to heat must also be considered. [2]. Even the aluminium cylinder heads and crankcase of the Corvair, built as recently as the 1960s, earned a reputation for failure and stripping of threads in holes, even as large as spark plug holes, which is not seen in current aluminium cylinder heads.

Edgar Rice Burroughs wrote a series of five books on Venus (the Venus series), featuring hero Carson Napier, who discovers that Venus (or Amtor, as it is known by the Venusians) is a world of sky-high trees, warring kingdoms and princesses in need of rescue. An Audi engineer commented about the V12 engine, producing over 500 horsepower (370 kW), of an Auto Union race car of the 1930s which was recently restored by the Audi factory, that the aluminium alloy of which the engine was constructed would today be used only for lawn furniture and the like. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos (1928–), there are mentions of the 'Lords of Venus', and conflicting indications that the Serpent People originated there. Similarly, use of aluminium in automotive applications, particularly in engine parts which must survive in difficult conditions, has benefited from development over time. P. For instance, a high frequency of failure in many early aluminium bicycle frames in the 1970s resulted in just such a poor reputation; with a moment's reflection, however, the widespread use of aluminium components in the aerospace and automotive high performance industries, where huge stresses are undergone with vanishingly small failure rates, proves that properly built aluminium bicycle components should not be unusually unreliable, and this has subsequently proved to be the case. In H. The strength and durability of aluminium varies widely, not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of the particular manufacturing process; for this reason, it has from time to time gained a bad reputation.

In fact, Tolkien chose the name directly from the ancient Old English word for the planet Venus. Similarly, aluminium bicycle frames can be optimally designed so as to provide rigidity where required, yet have flexibility in terms of absorbing the shock of bumps from the road and not transmitting them to the rider. The star was created when Eärendil the Mariner was set in the sky on his ship, with a Silmaril bound to his brow. The aluminium chassis members and suspension parts of these cars have large overall dimensions for stiffness but are lightened by reducing cross-sectional area and removing unneeded metal; as a result, they are not only equally or more durable and stiff as the usual steel parts, but they possess an airy gracefulness which most people find attractive. Tolkien, Venus is the Star of Eärendil. The latest models of the Corvette automobile, among others, are a good example of redesigning parts to make best use of aluminium's advantages. R. The limit to this process is the increase in susceptibility to what is termed "buckling" failure, where the deviation of the force from any direction other than directly along the axis of the tubing causes folding of the walls of the tubing.

R. In this way, rigidity can be restored or even enhanced without increasing weight. In the mythology of Middle-earth (1937), by J. Aluminium can best be used by redesigning the part to suit its characteristics; for instance making a bicycle of aluminium tubing which has an oversize diameter rather than thicker walls. In Olaf Stapledon's epic Last and First Men (1930), Venus is an oceanic idyll where humans evolve the power of flight. To increase the rigidity by increasing the thickness of the walls of the tubing increases the weight proportionately, so that the advantages of lighter weight are lost as the rigidity is restored. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3746583.stm - BBC science news. Where failure is not an issue but excessive flex is undesirable due to requirements for precision of location or efficiency of transmission of power, simple replacement of steel tubing with similarly sized aluminium tubing will result in a degree of flex which is undesirable; for instance, the increased flex under operating loads caused by replacing steel bicycle frame tubing with aluminium tubing of identical dimensions will cause misalignment of the power-train as well as absorbing the operating force.

http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn2843 - New Scientist article. Therefore, although direct replacement of an iron or steel part with a duplicate made from aluminium may still give acceptable strength to withstand peak loads, the increased flexibility will cause three times more deflection in the part. The reduction by two thirds of the weight of an aluminium part compared to a similarly sized iron or steel part seems enormously attractive, but it should be noted that it is accompanied by a reduction by two thirds in the stiffness of the part. Improper use of aluminium can result in problems, particularly in contrast to iron or steel, which appear "better behaved" to the intuitive designer, mechanic, or technician. ^[1].

A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in Ref. Selecting the right alloy for a given application entails considerations of strength, ductility, formability, weldability and corrosion resistance to name a few. Alloy systems are classified by a number system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents (DIN and ISO). Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures.

Aluminium is also a superconductor, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvins. Aluminium oxidises very energetically and as a result has found use in solid rocket fuels, thermite, and other pyrotechnic compositions. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in lasers for the production of coherent light. Aluminium oxide, alumina, is found naturally as corundum (rubies and sapphires), emery, and is used in glass making.

Some of the many uses for aluminium are in:.
. Telescope mirrors are also coated with a thin layer of aluminium, but are front coated to avoid internal reflections even though this makes the surface more susceptible to damage. In particular, nearly all modern mirrors are made using a thin reflective coating of aluminium on the back surface of a sheet of float glass.

These coatings form a thin layer of protective aluminium oxide that does not deteriorate as silver coatings do. When aluminium is evaporated in a vacuum it forms a coating that reflects both visible light and infrared. Aluminium alloys form vital components of aircraft and rockets as a result of their high strength to weight ratio. When combined with thermo-mechanical processing aluminium alloys display a marked improvement in mechanical properties.

Conversely, the term "alloy" in general use today usually means aluminium alloy. Pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance is more important than strength or hardness. Today almost all materials that claim to be aluminium are actually an alloy thereof. Pure aluminium has a low tensile strength, but readily forms alloys with many elements such as copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese and silicon (e.g.duralumin).

Whether measured in terms of quantity or value, the use of aluminium exceeds that of any other metal except iron, and it is important in virtually all segments of the world economy. It is the second most malleable metal (after gold) and the sixth most ductile. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200-400 nm (UV) , and the 3000-10000 nm (far IR) regions, while in the 400-700 nm visible range it is slightly outdone by silver, and in the 700-3000 (near IR) by silver, gold and copper. Aluminium is about one-third as dense as steel or copper; is malleable, ductile, and easily machined and cast; and has excellent corrosion resistance and durability due to the protective oxide layer.

Pure aluminium has a tensile strength of about 49 megapascals (MPa) and 700 MPa if it is formed into an alloy. Aluminium is nontoxic (as the metal), non-magnetic, and non-sparking. Aluminium is a soft and lightweight metal with a dull silvery appearance, due to a thin layer of oxidation that forms quickly when it is exposed to air. .

Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and very important in other areas of transportation and building in which light weight, durability, and strength are needed. Aluminium is used in many industries to make millions of different products and is very important to the world economy. Aluminium is found primarily as the ore bauxite and is remarkable for its resistance to oxidation (due to the phenomenon of passivation) and its light weight. It is a silvery and ductile member of the poor metal group of chemical elements.

Aluminium or aluminum (see the spelling section below) is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Al and atomic number 13. In the film Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, Scotty devises the fictional material transparent aluminum. The aluminohalides have a similar structure. It has many uses in organic chemistry, particularly as a reducing agent.

It decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminium and hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. Alumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the most useful being lithium aluminium hydride, Li[AlH₄]. They have some uses in organic synthesis, for instance trimethylaluminium. Organo-metallic compounds of empirical formula AlR₃ exist and, if not also giant molecules, are at least dimers or trimers.

The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure. It is very inert. It consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at 1291 °C. Aluminium fluoride, AlF₃, is made by treating the hydroxide with HF, or can be made from the elements.

It is polymorphic. Aluminium sulfide, Al₂S₃, may be prepared by passing hydrogen sulfide over aluminium powder. It exists in various crystalline forms. It is amphoteric, being both a very weak acid, and forming aluminates with alkalis.

Aluminium hydroxide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an aqueous solution of an aluminium salt. It is almost insoluble in water. As a gemstone, its hardness is only exceeded by diamond, boron nitride and carborundum. Aluminium oxide, Al₂O₃, occurs naturally as corundum, and can be made by burning aluminium in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate.

Aluminium phosphide, AlP, is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give phosphine. It is hydrolysed by water to form ammonia and aluminium hydroxide. Aluminium nitride, AlN, can be made from the elements at 800 °C. The acetylide, Al₂(C₂)₃, is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium.

The pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure, and react with water or dilute acids to give methane. Aluminium carbide, Al₄C₃ is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1000 °C. It can also be prepared by the action of aluminium chloride on lithium hydride in ether solution, but cannot be isolated free from the solvent. It burns explosively in air.

Aluminium hydride, (AlH₃)_n, can be produced from trimethylaluminium and an excess of hydrogen. The salts of strong acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with at least six molecules of water of crystallization. The hydroxide is a weak base and aluminium salts of weak bases, such as carbonate, can't be prepared. Fajans rules show that the simple trivalent cation Al³⁺ is not expected to be found in anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as Al₂O₃.

Aluminium suboxide, AlO can be shown to be present when aluminium powder burns in oxygen. AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium. The selenide is made in a parallel manner. It quickly disproportionates to the starting materials.

Al₂S can be made by heating Al₂S₃ with aluminium shavings at 1300 °C in a vacuum. Al₂O is made by heating the normal oxide, Al₂O₃, with silicon at 1800 °C in a vacuum. AlH is produced when aluminium is heated at 1500 °C in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Galvanic corrosion from the dissimilar metals increases the electrical resistance of the connection.

Pure aluminium has a tendency to "creep" under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature rises), again producing a degree of looseness in an initially tight connection. The greater coefficient of thermal expansion of aluminium, causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal screw connection, eventually loosening the connection. Copper heat sinks are smaller although more expensive and harder to manufacture. Most modern computer CPU heat sinks are made of aluminium due to its ease of manufacture and good heat conductivity.

Anodised aluminium is more stable to further oxidation, and is used in various fields of construction. Aluminium flakes may also be included in undercoat paints, particularly wood primer — on drying, the flakes overlap to produce a water resistant barrier. Powdered aluminium, a commonly used silvering agent in paint. Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and CDs.

MKM steel and Alnico magnets, although non-magnetic itself. Machinery. Electrical transmission lines (aluminium conductors are half the weight of copper for equal conductivity and lower in price[1]). Consumer durable goods (appliances, cooking utensils, etc.).

Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc. Water treatment. Packaging (cans, foil, etc.). Transportation (automobiles, airplanes, trucks, railroad cars, marine vessels, etc.).