VHS

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. However, Tivos and DVRs are the main competitors with the VHS in home recording. This takes into account the anatomy, distribution, and migration of various wolf colonies. It can also be more convenient to use VHS tapes because they can be rewritten easily, and VCRs can be easier than DVD recorders to use. However, the last decade has seen a new and widely accepted list that has been condensed to 13 living subspecies, and 2 recently extinct subspecies. Despite DVD's better quality, however, VHS is still widely used in home recording of television programs, due to the large installed base and the lower cost of VHS recorders. It was once believed there were as many as 50 separate subspecies.

Commentators predict that 2006 will be the final year of new releases on VHS, as major studios continue to phase out VHS. The subspecies for the Gray Wolf has been a very controversial issue among taxonomists. Moreover, most television programs released as box sets are for sale in DVD format only. Further taxonomic clarification may well take decades. Many films released to theaters from 2004 onwards have later been released only on DVD and not on VHS, and many other new feature films are being released solely on DVD. Many of these seem unlikely to stand. retailers Circuit City and Best Buy stopped selling VHS tapes in 2002 and 2003, respectively. Scientists have proposed a host of subspecies.

Major U.S. Indeed, only a single wolf species may exist. The DVD format was introduced in 1997 and has since overtaken VHS in sales and rentals. Although taxonomists have proposed many species over the years, most types clearly do not comprise true species. In addition, it offers superior audiovisual quality, and the storage of data in digital format on tape makes for improved transfer and editing. The classification of wolves and closely allied creatures offers many challenges. MiniDV has largely replaced 8mm tapes as the de facto camcorder standard in more recent years as it is smaller still (some MiniDV camcorders being no larger than one's hand). However, molecular systematics now indicate very strongly that domestic dogs and wolves are more closely related than either is to any other canid, and the domestic dog is now normally classified as a subspecies of the wolf: Canis lupus familiaris.

8mm tapes, introduced in the early 1980s, succeeded as a format for camcorders (both in the consumer, and to an extent, professional market), as VHS and Betamax camcorders were unsuitably large and heavy in comparison. Because the canids have evolved recently and different canids interbreed readily, untangling the true relationships has presented difficulties. As these cassettes are much more compact in design — which also means the hardware to play and record the tapes has to be more compact than VHS, and therefore more expensive — they are much more suited to portable applications such as camcorders. Most authorities see the wolf as the dog's direct ancestor, but others have postulated descent from the Golden Jackal. Other formats such as 8mm video cassettes and MiniDV have emerged since, but these formats are by no means in complete competition with VHS. Much debate has occurred over the relationship between the wolf and the domestic dog. Netscape. The radio telemetry is an important component in the suite of tools used in Wisconsin to calculate the overall wolf population.

Windows and Microsoft vs. Use of such radio collars enable biologists in airplanes to track the wolves and count pack sizes. IBM, Macintosh vs. Darting and box traps are important tools used by wildlife biologists who use the techniques to catch wolves, fit them with collars holding radio transmitters, and check their health before releasing the wolves. The format war and the "marketing over technology" claims have taken on a life of their own, and have been used as analogies in the battles of the computer industry, including Apple vs. Wolves are bred for their fur in very few locations, as they are considered as a rather problematic animal to breed, and combined with the low value of the pelt, it has driven most of the fur farms to change to utilizing other animals, such as the fox. Sony ultimately conceded the fight in the late '80s, bringing out a line of VHS VCRs. It is alleged that trapping, using the right tools and equipment, can be considered as humane as hunting; however, unskilled trappers can create unnecessary suffering in animals.

Ultimately Betamax did manage to make up some of the difference on recording time, but this was too little, too late. Wolf trapping has come under heavy fire from animal rights groups, who also use it to attack other forms of trapping and hunting. The longer tape time is sometimes cited as the defining factor in the format war, as the longer VHS tapes allowed consumers to record entire programs unattended, and arguably created the entire video rental industry by providing sufficient playing time for most feature films to be distributed on a single cassette. The economic value of wolf pelts is limited, so it is mainly a recreation activity. Betamax held an early lead in the format war, offering some technical advantages, but by 1980 VHS was gaining due to its longer tape time (3 hours maximum, compared to just 60 minutes for Betamax) and JVC's less strict licensing program. Wolves are frequently trapped, in the areas where it is legal, using snares or leg-hold traps. In fact, however, the root causes of VHS' victory are somewhat more complex. Such methods include rubber ammunition, and use of guard animals.

Since Betamax was widely perceived at the time as the better format, it is often stated that VHS' eventual victory was a victory of marketing over technical excellence. Other, non- or less-lethal methods of protecting livestock from wolves have been under development for the past decade. As mentioned, VHS was the winner of a protracted and somewhat bitter format war during the early 1980s against Sony's Betamax format. Today, most of the hunting is done on the ground or from helicopters. Conversely, an E-300 tape runs for 300 minutes in PAL-SP, but 200 minutes in NTSC-SP. Poisons have been used to kill wolves during the extermination campaigns in Europe and America. For example, a T-120 tape runs for 120 minutes in NTSC-SP, but 180 minutes in PAL-SP. This practice is seen as highly controversial.

It can easily be derived by multiplying with 3/2 or 2/3, respectively. Some ranchers in the United States hunt wolves from helicopters or light planes, some of them calling it an effective method of controlling wolf numbers, others calling it a sport. It is perfectly possible to record and play back a blank T-XXX tape in a PAL machine or a blank E-XXX tape in an NTSC machine, but the resulting playing time will be different than indicated. In the United States, as the timber wolf and other large predators been reintroduced, the USDA has been looking into the use of breeds such as the Akbash from Turkey, the Maremma from Italy, the Great Pyrenees from France and the Kuvasz from Hungary, among others. In order to avoid confusion, manufacturers indicate the playing time in minutes that can be expected for the market the tape is sold in:. Over several centuries in some countries, shepherds and dog breeders have used selective breeding to "create" large livestock-guarding dogs that can stand up to wolves preying on flocks. Both NTSC and PAL/SECAM VHS cassettes are physically identical (although the signals recorded on the tape are incompatible.) However, as tape speeds differ between NTSC and PAL/SECAM, the playing time for any given cassette will vary accordingly between the systems. Wolf-secure fences, relocation (in some cases), or local extermination of wolves are today the only known methods to effectively stop livestock predation.

Likewise, S-VHS machines for the Brazilian market record in NTSC and convert to/from PAL-M. Sheep are frequently the most vulnerable, while horses and cattle are also at risk. S-VHS machines sold in SECAM markets record internally in PAL, and convert to/from SECAM during record/playback, respectively. However, some wolves or packs can specialize in hunting livestock once the behavior is learned despite relative food supply. S-VHS only exists in PAL/625/25 and NTSC/525/30. As long as there are enough prey, wolves seem to avoid taking livestock. Dedicated multistandard machines can usually handle all standards listed, some high end model can even convert a tape from one standard to another by using a built-in standards converter. Wolves are hunted for their pelt, recreation, and population control.

regular VHS machines sold in Europe nowadays can typically handle PAL, MESECAM for record and playback, plus NTSC for playback only. However, some sources claim to have documented attacks, but in those cases, it is likely that the attacking wolves were suffering rabies, which is common in the areas in which the attacks occurred.^[13] In general, it is considered dangerous to approach or provoke wolves, as they are wild animals that will defend themselves if they feel threatened. E.g. There has been no documented proof in the past 150 years that any wild, healthy wolf has killed a human; wolves are more likely to flee than to attack. These can handle VHS tapes of more than one standards. The Mongols' greatest hero Genghis Khan called his people 'Clan of the Gray Wolf'. Since the 1990s dual- and multistandard VHS machines have become more and more common. In Mongolian mythology, the Mongols believe that they are descended from a male Gray Wolf and a white doe.

The following signal varieties exist in conventional VHS:. Despite their often negative image, wolves have variously been credited, in mythology, fiction and reality, with adopting, nursing, and raising human feral children, the most famous examples being Romulus and Remus and Mowgli of The Jungle Book. Typically, a VHS machine can only handle signals of the country it was sold in. However, in the 20th century, with the new knowledge of wolves and the growing respect for Native American folklore, the animal has been generally depicted much more positively. However, a machine must be designed to record a given standard. Human fear of the wolf is responsible for most of the trouble the species has received, and the reason it was nearly hunted out of existence. VHS can record and play back all varieties of analogue television signals in existence at the time VHS was devised. Norse mythology prominently includes three malevolent wolves: the giant Fenrisulfr, eldest child of Loki and the giantess Angrboda, (who was feared and hated by the Æsir); and Fenrisulfr's children Skoll and Hati, who will devour the sun and moon at Ragnarok.

This format is most notably used by Fox for some of its cable networks. The iconic examples of this image are the Big Bad Wolf and the werewolf—a human that transforms into a wolf through magic or a curse, one that is shunned and reviled in regular society. This format is the least expensive format to support a pre-read edit. In more modern western folklore, the wolf is a creature to be feared. There is also a JVC-designed component digital professional production format known as Digital-S or (officially) D9 that uses a VHS form factor tape and essentially the same mechanical tape handling techniques as an S-VHS recorder. Wulfstan, Wolfgang, Wolfhard). This development hampered the sales of the Betamax system somewhat, because the Betamax cassette geometry prevented a similar development. Many Germanic personal names used to and still include "wolf" as an element (e.g.

The magnetic tape on VHS-C cassettes is wound on one main spool and uses a gear wheel to advance the tape; the wheel and spool can also be moved by hand. In Proto-Indo-European society, the wolf was probably associated with the warrior class, and the term was subject to taboo deformation, the Latin lupus being an example of a mutated form of the original Proto-Indo-European *wlkwos. Since VHS-C tapes are based on the same magnetic tape as full size tapes, they can be played back in standard VHS players using a mechanical adapter, without the need of any kind of signal conversion. The gray wolf is also the focal point of Pan-Turkism and related mythology. Another variant is VHS-C (C for compact), used in some camcorders. The wolf was also the revered totem animal of Ancient Rome (see Romulus and Remus and Lupercalia). W-VHS caters for high definition video. The best examples of these myths can be seen in those of the Native Americans.

Devices have also been invented which directly connect a personal computer to VHS tape recorders for use as a data backup device. In many ancient myths, the wolf was portrayed as brave, honorable, and intelligent. Several improved versions of VHS exist, most notably S-VHS, an improved analog standard, and D-VHS, which records digital video onto a VHS form factor tape. There is an ongoing controversy, since regulations of the EU may make this impossible. There was a time when higher-end VCRs provided functions for manually removing and adding these index marks — so that, for example, they coincide with the actual start of the program — but this feature has become hard to find in recent models. Reindeer farmers in Lapland are affected by the increase, and other parts of the population wish to lift bans on wolf hunting. These are normally written at the beginning of each recording session, and can be found using the VCR's index search function: this will fast-wind forward or backward to the nth specified index mark, and resume playback from there. The situation is similar in Finland, where the number of wolves has been increasing over the past decades.

The control track can additionally hold index marks. Generally, the urban population is most positive to the wolf, while people actually living in the designated "wolf zones" are far more skeptical. Since good tracking depends on the exact distance between the rotating drum and the fixed control/audio head reading the linear tracks, which usually varies by a couple of micrometers between machines due to manufacturing tolerances, most VCRs offer tracking adjustment, either manual or automatic, to correct such mismatches. It is difficult to hinder the wolves from preying on the sheep, and in areas where the wolf has been reintroduced many farmers have quit. Another linear control track, at the tape's lower edge, holds pulses that mark the beginning of every frame of video; these are used to fine-tune the tape speed during playback and to get the rotating heads exactly on their helical tracks rather than having them end up somewhere between two adjacent tracks (a feature called tracking). In Norway the situation is further complicated, since sheep farmers use the forests as pasture for their animals during summer. These advanced features are impossible to find on later-model VCRs due to the rise of digital video formats. In spite of the fact that attacks on people are virtually nonexistent historically, and hundreds of dogs are killed each year in hunting accidents, the wolves' possible threat to dogs and people is often cited by these people as a strong argument against the wolf's right to exist in Swedish forests.

Another high-end feature was manual audio level control, which made the VHS HiFi format much more useful for high-quality audio-only recording purposes as discussed above. It has been argued that modern Scandinavian wolves are recent arrivals from Russia, not the remnants of the old wolf tribes. (Due to the different ways in which linear and HiFi audio are recorded, these kinds of dubbing were not possible with the HiFi tracks). The opponents are generally the rural working class who fear competition for Roe Deer and moose; they consider the wolf to be a foreign element, much like immigrants. Without the dubbing features, this task would've required the tape to be copied to another tape which would cause generational loss. In Sweden, there is a long and ongoing conflict between some groups who claim that the wolf has no place in nature, and that it has been reintroduced by the Swedish government with some sort of secret agenda. This was useful, for example, for laying a song over a previously edited-together montage of short video clips that were the same total duration as that song. With the return of the wolf, these bigger coyotes are forced to return to their previous niche, or face attacks from wolves.

These would move the tape past the heads and keep the video unchanged while recording new linear audio or keep the linear audio unchanged while recording new video, respectively. As they started to fill in the niche of the top predator, they started to grow larger. Some higher-end VHS and S-VHS VCRs once offered "audio dubbing" and "video dubbing" functions. Where wolves are reintroduced after a long absence, it has a marked influence on the coyote population. Of course, for backward compatibility, hi-fi VCRs still write the linear audio track during recording, and can automatically read it during playback if the hi-fi audio is not present. Fish and Wildlife Service. The excellent sound quality of hi-fi VHS has gained it some popularity as an audio format in certain applications; in particular, ordinary home hi-fi VCRs are sometimes used by home recording enthusiasts as a handy and inexpensive medium for making high-quality stereo mixdowns and master recordings from multitrack audio tape. Reports by wildlife biologists working for the National Park Service who stated that they had seen, though rarely, wolves in Yellowstone National Park, and had photographic proof of their limited presence prior to the "reintroduction", were essentially suppressed by the U.S.

When the video signal is written by the following video head, it erases and overwrites the audio signal at the surface of the tape, but leaves the deeper portion of the signal undisturbed. Recent studies have shown that the wolf would have enjoyed greater protection had it been allowed to repopulate areas on its own without human intervention. These audio tracks take advantage of depth multiplexing: since they use lower frequencies than the video, their magnetization signals penetrate deeper into the tape. This includes several studies looking into the feasibility of reintroducing the wolf in places farther east, in areas like Adirondack State Park in New York and certain areas of Maine. More recent hi-fi VCRs add higher-quality stereo audio tracks which are read and written by heads located on the same spinning drum that carries the video heads, frequency modulated to the unused frequency range in between the chroma and luma signals. Fish and Wildlife Service, which oversees threatened and endangered species within the United States. In the original VHS format, audio was recorded unmodulated in a single (monaural) linear track at the upper edge of the tape, which was limited in frequency response by the tape speed. Government, primarily by the U.S.

The video bandwidth is achieved with a relatively low tape speed by the use of helical scan recording of a frequency modulated luminance (black and white) signal, to which a frequency-reduced "color under" chroma (hue and saturation) signal is added. In fact, wolf reintroduction was pushed hard by the U.S. The vertical resolution of VHS (and all other analog recording methods) is determined by the TV standard — a maximum of 486 lines are visible in NTSC and a maximum of 576 lines in PAL. It is curious to note that some ranchers prefer reintroduction, as they can kill wolves that eat their livestock and get reimbursement for their losses, while wild animals are protected by law. The frequency modulation of the luminance signal makes higher resolutions impossible within the VHS standard, no matter how advanced the recorder's technology. Not only are they slowly but surely coming back naturally from Canada, they are also being successfully reintroduced in some states such as Idaho and Wyoming. VHS tapes have approximately 3 MHz of video bandwidth, and a horizontal resolution of about 240 discernible lines per scanline [1]. In the United States, wolves are repopulating where they were eradicated, and numbers have been increasing in Alaska and Minnesota, where some packs remained in the deep forests despite bounty hunting and other past eradication efforts.

An unofficial LP mode with half the standard speed exists on some NTSC machines, but is not part of the VHS standard. Such mediums tend to emphasize the wolf as an affectionate, devoted parent and fraternal animal that is deserving of our respect and protection as integral members of our global biodiversity. Because of this, commercial prerecorded tapes were almost always recorded in SP mode. This onslaught of pro-wolf publicity, including that which is procured from nature documentaries and books, has undoubtedly played a role in changing attitudes for the better. Of course, these speed reductions cause corresponding reductions in video quality; also, tapes recorded at the lower speed often exhibit poor playback performance on recorders other than the one they were produced on. David Mech and Luigi Boitani have arguably been the two leaders in contemporary wolf research. More recent machines usually allow the selection of longer recording times by lowering the tape speed: LP mode (for PAL and some NTSC machines) halves the tape speed and doubles the recording time, while EP mode (for NTSC and some newer PAL machines, aka SLP mode) drops the tape speed to one-third, for triple the recording time. Biologists L.

Most cassettes have lower recording times because they use thicker tape, which helps avoid jams; careful users generally avoid the thinnest tapes. The large amount of research done on wolves in the last half century has also helped to educate people in a way that helps them to realize how sociologically similar humans are to wolves, and how people have little to fear from these naturally cautious, complex animals. A cassette holds a maximum of about 430 m of tape at the lowest acceptable tape thickness, giving a maximum playing time of about 3.5 hours for NTSC and 5 hours for PAL at "standard" (SP) quality. Even this undertaking has it drawbacks, because, as naturalists point out, tourists sometimes intrude on wolf habitat, consequently disturbing them in an attempt to communicate with them in this manner. The tape speed is 3.335 cm/s for NTSC, 2.339 cm/s for PAL. In certain parks, tourists enjoy participating in wolf howls, in which a person or a group attempts to imitate a wolf's howl well enough to induce a response from resident wolves. A VHS cassette contains a ½ inch (12.7 mm) wide magnetic tape wound between two spools, allowing it to be slowly passed over the various playback and recording heads of the video cassette recorder. Today, organizations such as the International Wolf Center, Defenders of Wildlife, and Mission: Wolf attempt to educate people about the true nature of wolves, and such action has proven helpful to past reintroduction efforts, especially in places such as Yellowstone National Park.

. Society as a whole has begun to realize the morality in attempting to make up for centuries of undue persecution, and knows of the justification behind trying to return a portion of our ecological integrity back to the American landscape. Most newer VHS machines do not perform this unthreading step, as due to improved engineering, head-tape contact is no longer an impediment to fast winding. Accordingly, while the stereotype of wolves as malicious, wanton killers and vile, worthless beasts still has influence in certain circles, a significant portion of the public has developed a more positive opinion of wolves as interesting, valuable, and noble animals. Early VHS machines could rewind and fast forward the tape considerably faster than a Betamax VCR since they unthreaded the tape from the playback heads before commencing any high-speed winding. This increased awareness exposed the beneficial nature of wolves, and helped lead to their eventual endangered classification and subsequent reintroduction efforts. VHS initially offered a longer playing time than the Betamax system, and it also had the advantage of a far less complex tape transport mechanism. David Mech, and Adolph Murie helped to shift the wolf's image to that of an intelligent and affectionate creature essential to the proper functioning of a conventional North American ecosystem.

VHS became a standard format for consumer recording and viewing in the 1980s and 1990s after competing in a fierce format war with Sony's Betamax and, to a lesser extent, Philips' Video 2000. The works of wolf supporters such as Farley Mowat, L. Some early reports claim the name originally stood for Victor Helical Scan System. In the late 20th century, American society underwent a dramatic change of heart. VHS officially stands for Video Home System, but it initially stood for Vertical Helical Scan, after the relative head/tape scan technique. In Alaska, where they are not protected by the Act, their populations continue to be controlled (usually by aerial hunting) in an effort to increase yields for hunters. The Video Home System, first released in September 1976, better known by its abbreviation VHS, is a recording and playing standard for video cassette recorders (VCRs), developed by JVC (with some of its critical technology under lucrative licensing agreements with Sony) and launched in 1976. In a somewhat novel development, they have been allowed to naturally propagate in the upper Midwest, and have been reintroduced to areas in Wyoming, Idaho, and Arizona.

Viz Video (1993-). in some form or another by a national endangered species bill, the latest of which is the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Buena Vista Home Entertainment (1989-). Since the late 1960s, wolves have been protected in the U.S. Miramax Home Entertainment, a unit of Buena Vista Home Entertainment (1989-). Ergo, they were destroyed completely in the contiguous 48 states, with the exception of Minnesota, over the subsequent decades. New Line Home Entertainment, a TimeWarner Company (1989-). It is somewhat unbelievable that wolves managed to garner such an incredible amount of hatred for having done little else than what any species would do if both its habitat and main food source were destroyed.

Carolco Home Video, a division of Artisan Entertainment, a Lions Gate Company (1988-1995). The corpses of affected animals would then themselves become poisonous, which tended to result in a rather long chain reaction of death. Orion Home Video, a Sony Pictures Entertainment Company (1988-1997). Besides traps, snares, and other mechanical methods, hunters would line carcasses with poison (usually strychnine), which would then kill the animals that preyed upon it. Anchor Bay Entertainment (1980s-). To accomplish this, there was no limit to the extent hunters and trappers were willing to go in order to kill predators in large numbers. Hi-Tops Video, a Heron Communications Company (1985-1992). With few vouching for them, wolves and other predators were destroyed en masse, resulting in a so-called "hunters paradise" free from irritating predators.

Simitar Entertainment (1980s-1990s). Eventually, North American society's perception of the wolf was one defined by indifference or outright hatred. Touchstone Home Entertainment, a unit of the Walt Disney Company (1984-). When the wolves preyed on what little of their natural prey was left, hunters complained; when they then began preying on the cattle, ranchers, of course, complained, too. Artisan Entertainment, a Lions Gate Company (1984-). Humans destroyed the vast majority of their habitat and food source in North America, replacing forests with farms and wild ungulates with cattle. Family Home Entertainment, a division of Artisan Entertainment, a Lions Gate Company (1982-). Wolves, for a time, were partially valued for their fur, but in the majority of circumstances (and in some instances today), they were viewed as wholly worthless and decidedly despicable creatures.

NBC Home Video, an NBC/Universal Company (1981-). During this time, the wilderness was perceived as something to be conquered, settled, and cultivated, as through Manifest Destiny or by man's inherent worldly right. Universal Studios Home Video, an NBC/Universal Company (1980-). European folklore exacerbated this negative image, which was brought over to North America as it was settled. Magnetic Video, the first duplicator/distributor of movies on video cassette for home use (1977-1981). Traditionally, humans have viewed wolves negatively, perceiving them to be dangerous or as nuisances to be destroyed. Vestron Video, a division of Artisan Entertainment, a Lions Gate Company (1979-). The relationship between people and wolves has had a very long and turbulent history.

MGM Home Entertainment, a Sony Pictures Entertainment Company (1979-). At the same time, this balance between wolves and their prey prevents the mass starvation of all species involved. Media Home Entertainment, a Heron Communications Company (1978-1992). Wolves are sensitive to fluctuations in prey abundance, making them likely to experience minor changes within their own populations. Warner Home Video, a TimeWarner Company (1978-). Wolves are susceptible to the same infections that affect domestic dogs, such as mange, heartworm, rabies and canine distemper, and such diseases can become epidemic, drastically reducing the wolf population in an area. HBO Video, a TimeWarner Company (1978-). The most significant mortality factors for grown wolves are hunting and poaching by humans, car accidents, and wounds suffered while hunting prey.

Sony Pictures Home Entertainment (1978-). Pups die when food is scarce; they can also fall prey to other predators such as bears, or, less likely, coyotes, foxes, or other wolves. Walt Disney Home Entertainment (1978-). High mortality rates result in a relatively low life expectancy for wolves on an overall basis. Twentieth (20th) Century-Fox Home Entertainment, a News Corporation Company (1977-). Wolves that reach maturity typically live between 6 and 9 years in the wild, although in captivity they can live to be twice that age. Paramount Home Video, a Viacom Company (1976-). Wolves typically reach sexual maturity after two or three years, at which point many of them will feel compelled to leave their birth packs and search out mates and territories of their own.

E-XXX indicates playing time for PAL or SECAM in SP speed. Letting the pups fight for the right to eat results in a secondary ranking being formed among them, and lets them practice the dominance/submission rituals that will be essential to their future survival in pack life. T-XXX indicates playing time for NTSC or PAL-M in SP speed. After a few more weeks, the pups are permitted to join the adults if they are able (they tag along as observers until about eight months, by which time they are large enough to actively participate), and will receive first dibs on anything killed, their low ranks notwithstanding. PAL-M, Brazil). An adult or two will stay behind to ensure the safety of the pups. PAL/525/30 (i.e. After two months, the restless pups will be moved to a rendezvous site, which gives them a safe place to reside while most of the adults go out to hunt.

NTSC/525/30 (Most parts of North and South America, Japan, South Korea). ^[12]. MESECAM/625/25 (most other SECAM countries, notably Eastern Europe and Middle East). During the first weeks of development, the mother usually stays with her litter alone, but eventually most members of the pack will contribute to the rearing of the pups in some way. SECAM/625/25 (SECAM, French variety). They begin eating regurgitated foods at four weeks – by which time their milk teeth have emerged – and are weaned by six weeks. PAL/625/25 (most of Western Europe, many parts of Asia and Africa). During this time, the pups will become more independent, and will eventually begin to explore the area immediately outside the den before gradually roaming up to a mile away from it.

Pups reside in the den, where they are born, and stay there until they reach about 8 weeks of age (the den is usually near an open water source, and has an open "room" at the end of an underground/hillside tunnel that can be up to a couple meters long). There are 1–14 pups per litter, with the average litter size being about four to six. The gestation period lasts 60 to 63 days, and the pups are born blind, deaf, and completely dependent on their mother. Under normal circumstances, the alpha female will try to prevent this by aggressively dominating other females and physically separating them from the alpha male.

A pack usually procures one litter, though sometimes multiple litters will be born if the alpha male mates with one or more subordinate females. Wolves, unlike dogs, only mate once a year. Mating usually occurs between January and May, happening later in the year as latitude increases. This kind of organization also occurs in other pack-hunting canids, such as the Dhole and the African Hunting Dog.

Normally, only the alpha pair of the pack breeds. In one study, less than 1 out of 10 chases of moose resulted in a successful kill.^[11] Therefore, wolves must hunt almost constantly to sustain themselves. Even so, pack hunting efforts are usually fruitless. Probability dictates that these tactics are much more useful against lame, young, or old prey animals, and so it is these individuals that are most likely to fall to wolf predation.

Realizing this, wolves are not likely to spend much time testing, chasing, or harassing such individuals. Healthy, fit individuals will stand their ground against wolves, and are simply better able to effectively defend themselves, increasing the possibility of injury for the wolves involved. Hence, while wolves are certainly capable of culling the least fit from the communities of animals on which they prey, the process certainly doesn't target the feeble or the ill-suited to an outright degree. Less fit animals typically include the elderly, diseased, and young, and though these individuals are among the most likely to fall victim to predation, healthy animals may also succumb through circumstance or by chance.

Wolf packs test large populations of prey species by inducing a chase, thereby picking and ganging up on an individual that they perceive to be less fit. When pursuing large prey, wolves generally attack from all angles, targeting the necks and sides of such animals. ^[10]. In fact, wolves rarely eat on a daily basis, and so they make up for this by eating up to 20 lb (9 kg) of meat when they get the chance.

They also prey on rodents and small animals in a limited manner, as a typical wolf requires between 3 and 10 lb (1.3 to 4.5 kg) of meat per day for sustenance; however, this certainly doesn't mean that a wolf will get the chance to eat everyday. Wolves' diets include, but are not limited to, elk, caribou, moose, deer, and other large ungulates. Solitary wolves depend on small animals, capturing them by pouncing and pinning them to the ground with their front paws – a common technique among canids such as foxes and coyotes. Through meticulous cooperation, a pack of wolves is able to pursue large prey for several hours before relenting, though the success rate of such chases is rather low.

Pack hunting methods range from surprise attacks to long-lasting chases, though they strongly favor the latter. Packs of wolves hunt any large herbivores in their range, while lone wolves are apt to consuming smaller animals due to their relative inability to catch anything larger. The wolf is a carnivore. Howling becomes less indiscriminate as wolves learn to distinguish howling pack members from rival wolves.

Such indiscriminate howling usually has a communicative intent, and has no adverse consequences so early in a wolf's life. The pups themselves begin howling towards the end of July, and can be provoked into howling sessions relatively easily over the following two months. Studies also show that wolves howl more frequently during the breeding season and subsequent rearing process. Observations of wolf packs suggest that howling occurs most often during the twilight hours, preceding the adults' departure to the hunt and following their return.

For example, confrontation could mean bad news if the rival pack gravely underestimates the howling pack's numbers. This concealment of numbers makes a listening rival pack wary of what action to take. During such choral sessions, wolves will howl at different tones and varying pitches, which tends to prevent a listener from accurately estimating the number of wolves involved. Some scientists speculate that such group sessions strengthen the wolves' social bonds and camaraderie—similar to community singing among humans.

Wolves will also howl for communal reasons. Thus, wolves tend to howl with great care. Adjacent packs may respond to each others' howls, which can mean trouble for the smaller of the two. As a rule of thumb, large packs will more readily draw attention to themselves than will smaller packs.

This behavior is also stimulated when a pack has something to protect, such as a fresh kill. Furthermore, howling helps to summon pack members to a specific location.^[9] Howling can also serve as a declaration of territory, as portrayed by a dominant wolf's tendency to respond to a human imitation of a "rival" individual in an area that the wolf considers its own. Howling helps pack members keep in touch, allowing them to effectively communicate in thickly forested areas or over great distances. Wolves howl for several reasons.

This ranges from subtle signals–such as a slight shift in weight–to the obvious, like rolling on the back as a sign of submission.^[8]. Wolves communicate not only by sound (such as yipping, growling, and howling), but also by body language. This kind of dominance encounter is more common in the winter months, when mating occurs. The loser of such a confrontation is frequently chased away from the pack or, rarely, may be killed as other aggressive wolves contribute to the insurgency.

While the majority of wolf aggression is non-damaging and ritualized, a high-stakes fight can easily result in injury for either or both parties. On the other hand, the challenged individual may choose to fight back, with varying degrees of intensity. An older wolf may simply choose to give way when an ambitious challenger presents itself, yielding its position without bloodshed. Loss of rank can happen gradually or suddenly.

In large packs full of easygoing wolves, or in a group of juvenile wolves, rank order may shift almost constantly, or even be circular (e.g., animal A dominates animal B, who dominates animal C, who dominates animal A). Rank, who holds it, and how it is enforced varies widely between packs and between individual animals. Wolves prefer psychological warfare to physical confrontations, meaning that high-ranking status is based more on personality or attitude than on size or physical strength. Rank order is established and maintained through a series of ritualized fights and posturing best described as ritual bluffing.

Most, males particularly, will disperse, however. Some mature individuals, usually females, may choose to stay in the original pack so as to reinforce it and help rear more pups. All the wolves in the pack assist in raising wolf pups. Usually, only the alpha pair is able to successfully rear a litter of pups (other wolves in a pack may breed, and may even produce pups, but usually they lack the freedom or the resources to raise the pups to maturity).

The death of one alpha does not affect the status of the other alpha, who will quickly take another mate. While most alpha pairs are monogamous with each other, there are exceptions.^[7] An alpha animal may preferentially mate with a lower-ranking animal, especially if the other alpha is closely related (a brother or sister, for example). In addition, one wolf typically assumes the role of omega, the lowest-ranking member of a pack.^[6] These individuals absorb the greatest amount of aggression from the rest of the pack, and consequently enjoy comparatively few individual privileges. In larger packs, there may be also be a beta wolf or wolves – a "second-in-command" to the alphas.

It is the baby-sitter and usually more puppy than wolf. The omega is the lowest. There are verious subordinates, who dominate the omega. Below the alphas are the betas, who will take over breeding responsibility as well as the pack if the alpha cannot for any reason.

The rest of the pack usually follows. The alphas do not give the other wolves orders; rather, they simply have the most freedom in choosing where to go, what to do, and when to do it. The alpha pair has the greatest amount of social freedom among all the pack members, but they are not "leaders" in the human sense of the term. Most dogs, except perhaps large, specially bred attack dogs, do not stand much of a chance against a pack of wolves protecting its territory from an unwanted intrusion.

Dispersing individuals must avoid the territories of other wolves because intruders on occupied territories are chased away or killed, a behavior that may explain wolf "predation" of dogs. Lone wolves searching for other individuals can travel very long distances seeking out suitable territories. New packs are formed when a wolf leaves its birth pack and claims a territory. The hierarchy affects all activity in the pack, from which wolf eats first to which is allowed to breed (generally only the alpha pair).

Packs can contain between two and 20 wolves, though an average pack consists of six or seven.^[4][5] The hierarchy of the pack is relatively strict, with the alphas at the top and the omega at the bottom. The size of the pack may change over time and is controlled by several factors, including habitat, personalities of individual wolves within a pack, and food supply. However, emerging new theories suggest the pack strategy has less to do with hunting than with reproductive success. This social structure was originally thought to allow the wolf to take prey many times its size.

Wolves function as social predators and hunt in packs organized according to a strict social hierarchy and led by an alpha male and alpha female. Therefore, any injury to the jaw line or teeth could devastate an individual, dooming it to starvation or inutility. inch of pressure, a wolf's teeth are its main weapons as well as its primary tools. Powered by 1500lbs/sq.

The long canine teeth are also important, in that they are designed to hold and subdue the prey. The mandible has six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars.^[3] The fourth upper premolars and first lower molars constitute the carnassial teeth, which are essential tools for shearing flesh. Wolves and most larger dogs share identical dentition: The maxilla has six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and four molars. Also, precaudal glands at the base of the tail are present in wolves, whereas they are not in dogs.

Larger paw size, yellow eyes, longer legs, and bigger teeth further distinguish adult wolves from other species of canids, particularly dogs. Wolves also differ in certain skull dimensions, having a smaller orbital angle, for example, than dogs (>53 degrees for dogs compared to <45 degrees for wolves) while possessing a comparatively larger brain capacity. Wolves have stout, blocky muzzles that help distinguish them from coyotes and dogs. Though extremely unusual, it is possible for an adult wolf to retain its blue-colored eyes.

At birth, wolf pups tend to have darker fur and blue eyes that typically change to a yellow-gold or orange color when the pups are 8-16 weeks old. At the beginning of life, wolf puppies cannot eat solid food, regulate their body temperature, or even urinate without the help of their mother. The birthing itself takes about three hours for the average litter of five. She will prepare at least one den, always on high ground and near water.

The gestation period of a mother is sixty-three days. Fur color sometimes corresponds with a given wolf population's environment; for example, all-white wolves are much more common in areas with perennial snow cover.^[2] Aging wolves acquire a grayish tint in their coats. A multicolor coat characteristically lacks any clear pattern except for the dark markings around the eyes. These colors tend to mix in many populations to form predominantly blended individuals, though it is certainly not uncommon for an individual or an entire population to be entirely one color (usually all black or all white).

Coloration varies greatly, and runs from gray to gray-brown, all the way through the canine spectrum of white, red, brown, and black. Females tend to keep their winter coats further into the spring than males. Wolves have distinct winter and summer pelages that alternate in spring and autumn. The second is a dense, water-resistant undercoat that insulates.

The first layer consists of tough guard hairs designed to repel water and dirt. A wolf sometimes seems more massive than it actually is due to its bulky coat, which is made of two layers. Furthermore, scent glands between a wolf's toes help it to keep track of its location, and others of its whereabouts. Bristled hairs and blunt claws enhance grip on slippery surfaces, and special blood vessels keep paw pads from freezing.

The front paws are larger than the hind paws, and feature a fifth digit, a dewclaw, that is absent on hind paws. Wolves are digitigrade, and so the relative largeness of their feet helps to better distribute their weight on snowy surfaces. There is slight webbing between their toes, which moves them over snowy ground like a duck through water. Wolf paws are designed to traverse easily through snow, giving wolves an advantage over hampered prey.

While sprinting thus, wolves can cover up to 5 m (16 ft) per bound. They are capable of covering several miles trotting at about a 10 km/h (6 mph) pace, though they have been known to reach speeds approaching 65 km/h (40 mph) during a chase (wolves only run fast when testing potential prey). Narrow chests and powerful backs and legs contribute to the wolf's proficiency for efficient locomotion. Wolves are built for stamina, possessing features tailored for long-distance travel.

Wolves measure between 1 and 1.5 meters (39 to 59 inches) from nose to tail tip, with the tail itself consisting of approximately one quarter of overall body length. Extreme specimens reaching 80kg (176 lbs.) have been recorded in Alaska and Canada, though some people claim to have seen larger anomalous individuals (90+kg) roaming the Yukon, where some of the largest wolves in North America can be found. Roughly speaking, Males average about 45 kg (100 pounds), while females usually weigh around twenty percent less. Wolf weight and size tend to increase proportionally with worldly latitude, with height varying between 0.6 and 0.9 meters (24 to 35 inches) at the shoulder, and weight typically ranging from 30–55 kg (65-120 pounds), making wolves the largest among all wild canids.

. Carolus Linnaeus gave the wolf the scientific name Canis lupus in the 18th century.^[1]. They continue to be hunted in many areas of the world as perceived threats to livestock and human well-being, as well as for sport. , they are listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act of 1973.

In the contiguous U.S., with the exception of Minnesota and Wisconsin (where they have a threatened status). A list of potential wolf habitat reflects their adaptability as a species, and includes temperate forests, mountains, tundra, taiga, and grasslands. Gray wolves, being keystone predators, are integral components of the ecosystems to which they typically belong. Today, for a variety of human-related reasons involving widespread habitat destruction and excessive hunting, wolves inhabit only a very limited portion of their former range.

Gray wolves were once abundant and distributed over much of North America, Eurasia, and the Middle East. The wolf shares a common ancestry with the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), and, according to most experts, is likely the progenitor of all dogs as they exist today (in which case, the domestic dog would more accurately be classified as Canis lupus familiaris). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus; other forms: Timber Wolf, Wolf; British English: Grey Wolf) is a mammal of the Canidae family. pallipes) - From India to the Middle East.

l. Indian Wolf (C. occidentalis) - Western Canada, Alaska, and reintroduced into North West USA. l.

Mackenzie Valley Wolf (C. nubilus) - Far West and Eastern Canada, North East USA. l. Great Plains Wolf (C.

lycaon) - South East Canada. l. Eastern Timber Wolf (C. lupus) - from China, Mongolia, Russia and Eastern Europe to Germany, Spain and Portugal.

l. Eurasian Wolf (C. Previously mistaken for golden jackals. lupaster) - North Egypt and North East Libya.

l. Egyptian Wolf (C. italicus) - Italian Apennines. l.

Italian Wolf (C. Extinct. hodophilax) - South Japan. l.

Honshu Wolf (C. Extinct. hattai) - North Japan. l.

Hokkaido Wolf (C. cubanensis) - Russia, Georgia, between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea. l. Caspian Sea Wolf (C.

communis) - Central Russia. l. Russian Wolf (C. baileyi) - Reintroduced into Arizona.

l. Mexican Wolf (C. arctos) - Canadian Arctic islands and Greenland. l.

Arctic Wolf (C. arabs) - Arabian Peninsular. l. Arabian Wolf (C.

albus) - Northern Russia. l. Tundra Wolf (C. Gray Wolf (Canis lupus)