Tank

Reduction of signatures and multi-fuel capability give the Stirling engine an advantage, and it has been examined. [24] [25]. For example, a hybrid electric version of the M113 APC outperformed the conventional one in many areas, but only at the expense of smaller range. Aftermarket performance parts for the Camry are significantly more limited than for sportier vehicles; however, even a bona-fide supercharger has been developed specifically for the Camry. The turbine engine and diesel (or multi-fuel) power plants meet current power needs but it is also possible that other types of power-plants such as fuel cells will provide a viable option, and they have been experimented with. Toyota's in-house motor sport department, Toyota Racing Development, as well as Toyota Team Europe and TOM'S, does offer performance parts for the fourth- and fifth-generation Camry. If tank designs switched to electrical motors like some other heavy construction equipment, rather than a direct drive transmission, or used electromagnetic guns, as is being studied for ships, there would still be a need for a good power-plant. Since 2004, Tundra pickups have competed in the Craftsman Truck Series.

One clear trend is the increasing number of electrical and communication systems on a tank, such as thermal scopes and higher powered radios. On January 23, 2006, Toyota announced that their 2007 version of the Camry will be entered for NASCAR's elite Busch and Nextel Cup series, starting in the 2007 season, marking the first appearance by a vehicle made by an automobile manufacturer not based in the United States to compete in NASCAR's top two series since the 1950s. Research is also ongoing in armour systems and new propulsion units. As the matter of fact, the South African Super Touring Camry is still being raced by a private individual in Australia in 2005, despite the car being more than 10 years old. Current research involves making the tank invisible to radar by adapting stealth technologies originally designed for aircraft and a variety of luminosity and colour shaping technologies. [23] The Camry's popularity and Toyota's reputation for reliability means that older-model Camrys occasionally surface in amateur motorsports. There has been much speculation as to how tanks will evolve for modern day conflicts. In spite of past failures, there nonetheless exists evidence that late-model Camrys have been raced in other minor championships.

Many aircraft, including the A-10 Thunderbolt II and SU-25 Frogfoot, have been specifically built for close air support, which in many cases include destroying tanks. It only achieved moderate success as the competition comprised of other more suitable machinery, for example BMW 320i's prepared by Team Schnitzer. Some infantry antitank weapons can also be configured to act as off-route mines. So far, the one and only time a Camry that has been used by a works Toyota team as a race car is during the 1990's, where Toyota South Africa commissioned a third-generation Camry, built according to FIA's Class-2 Super Touring regulations, to be raced in the South African Touring Car Championship. Obviously a well placed off route mine will attempt to attack the rear or at worst the side of the tank, if at all possible. Due to the Camry's size and market orientation, it is not a suitable candidate for professional motorsports activities. Some of the fusing systems are sophisticated enough to be able to discriminate between different classes of target and only attack specified classes of vehicles, e.g., ignore wheeled vehicles. The Camry received an "average" theft loss index in yearly reports generated by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) for every year between 1992 and 2004 except 1997, when it received a "worse than average." [22] Each of these reports only covers the previous three model years (e.g., the 1992 report covers 1989-1991 Camrys).

These mines can be fired by a human operator, simple mechanical actuator such as a tripwire or pressure plate, or by more sophisticated systems, such as seismic, IR or other electronic fusing systems. In 2001, for example, the second-generation Camry was the most-stolen vehicle, whereas the fourth-generation Camry was the 79th most stolen. The two common warheads for these mines are the ubiquitous HEAT and less commonly a platter charge. for several years. When the tank passes they fire into the side of the tank. [21] This can be partly attributed to the fact that the Camry has been the top selling car in the U.S. are all likely spots. The Camry is reportedly the most stolen car in the United States.

Choke points such as bridges, fords, gates, underpasses, etc. [20]. These are mines that can be mounted on a vertical surface such as a wall, or tree, or mounted on a stand and are intended to be aimed at a road, track to other point a tank is likely to pass. IIHS rear-crash performance was rated as marginal for Camrys with cloth seats and poor for Camrys with leather seats. As well as the traditional bottom attack mine, the scatter mine, the artillery delivered mine, or air delivered mine, there are also a number of side attack or "off route" mines available. NHTSA rollover performance is listed as five stars for 2001 models and four stars thereafter. In addition with modern scatterable mines, and in particular artillery scatterable mines, it is actually possible to lay a mine field around a moving tank formation. The IIHS website notes that although Toyota changed the design of 2004 Camrys to improve side performance, the changes would not significantly impact the crash performance of vehicles without side airbags.

Mines have the advantage of attacking the thinnest armour of the tank and can be well concealed. [19] Three out of the nine categories were scored as poor, including Head protection, driver, Injury:Head/neck, and Injury:Torso, rear passenger. The tank is still vulnerable to mines. However, side crash performance without airbags was only two stars in 2002 (NHTSA) [18] and poor, the lowest score on the IIHS scale. In addition even the light cannon of the helicopter gunship can be effective as they can attack the thin top armour of the tank. [17]. In addition most helicopter launched ATGWs have sufficient range that they can under the right conditions fire from ranges where the tank itself can not easily retaliate with its own weapons (though it is believed that some countries are developing anti-helicopter weapons that can be fired from a main gun and some tank gunnery systems are probably capable of hitting a hovering or slow moving helicopter at considerable range). Similarly, IIHS side impacts with airbags was rated as good overall with good in most categories.

The helicopter can typically fire from behind cover, using its greater mobility to attack from an unexpected quarter. [15] [16] It was also again listed as a BEST PICK in frontal crashes. The single biggest threat to the tank today is the antitank helicopter armed with ATGWs (Anti-Tank Guided Weapons) or cannon. The fifth-generation frontal performance was similar to that for the fourth-generation. laser designator) guidance for attacking tanks. The fifth-generation Camry was tested for front, side, and rollover crashes (NHTSA) and rear, side (with and without side airbags), and frontal offset crashes (IIHS). There has also been development of large calibre (81-mm and larger) guided mortar munitions with both internal (e.g., IR or radar) or external (i.e. [14].

All of the above bar the CLGP can be fired from medium (152/155-mm) artillery, both tube and rocket. The NHTSA gave the Camry four stars in side impact tests when fitted with side airbags and three stars without. When a tank is identified a rocket is fired to direct the projectile at the tank. [12] [13] Additionally, the IIHS website lists the 1997-2001 Camry as being a BEST PICK in frontal crash tests. In order to allow the munitions time to use its sensor the munitions will often be deployed under a parachute. The fourth-generation Camry was tested for frontal and side impacts (NHTSA) and frontal offset (IIHS) crashes, but scored significantly better than the third generation in all frontal tests. The munitions contain some circuitry to identify tanks, such as IR or millimetre radar. [11].

Once again the shell explodes above the tank position and dispenses a (usually smaller) number of submunitions. [8] In comparison, the similar-vintage Honda Accord fared similarly (although somewhat worse) [9], the Ford Taurus did notably better [10], and the Nissan Maxima performed much worse. More sophisticated are submunitions with a homing capability. [7] The IIHS scored it acceptable overall, with three out of six categories listed as good and the other three listed as acceptable. A six-gun battery might be able to fire several hundred submunitions into an area in a minute or two. NHTSA gave the vehicle four stars for the driver and between three and four stars for the passenger, depending on the year. A variation on this theme is replacing the top attack munitions with small antitank mines, which probably won't penetrate the armour but will blow off a track, leaving the tank vulnerable for destruction by other means. The third-generation Camry was tested only frontal (NHTSA) and frontal offset (IIHS) crashes.

If they do hit it will likely cause damage, despite their small size, since they are attacking the thin top armour. Similarly, the IIHS scores crash performance with a four-level grade (Good, Acceptable, Marginal, and Poor) in multiple categories and overall. At its simplest the shell bursts in the air and a number of shaped charged (HEAT) or HEDP (High Explosive Dual Purpose) bomblets or grenades rain down, with luck hitting the tank. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) scores crash ratings as one to five stars for front and side crashes. In addition to achieving a direct hit with guided projectiles, guided and unguided scatter munitions and submunitions have been developed: a single artillery shell containing a number of smaller munitions designed to attack a tank. Both the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) [5] and the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) [6] publish crash information for the third-, fourth-, and fifth-generation Camry. In addition some of these CLGP's such as the Copperhead have HEAT warheads instead of common HE. For more information see: Toyota Camry Hybrid.

These include laser guided projectiles, such as the US Copperhead CLGP (Cannon Launched Guided Projectile) which virtually guarantees a direct hit on the thin top armour. Standard features include remote entry and start, side torso airbags, knee airbags and side-curtain airbags.The Camry Hybrid will be built at the company's Georgetown, Kentucky plant, with about 45,000 projected per year. In the last thirty years however, a variety of artillery projectiles have been developed with attacking tanks in mind. However, the Camry Hybrid will utilize a 4-cylinder gasoline engine as opposed to a V6, a setup that will produce 192 hp (143 kW). Even though a shell may not penetrate a tank's armour, it can still disable it through dynamic shock, internal armor shattering, or simply overturning the tank. It will use a Hybrid Synergy Drive setup similar to that of the Toyota Prius, Toyota Highlander Hybrid and Lexus RX 400h, which mates Toyota's 3MZ V6 with an electric motor. Traditionally, conventional artillery has not been very effective against tanks as the tank's armour could withstand any artillery round except a direct hit. For 2006, Toyota will create a hybrid gas/electric Camry when it is redesigned as the 2007 Toyota Camry called the Camry Hybrid.

In addition in built up areas the tank is very vulnerable to attack from above—the roof and floor of the tank being traditionally the thinnest and weakest armoured surfaces. The CE and LE trims have similar hubcap designs like the gen 5 02-04 models. Tanks are also vulnerable to hand placed antitank mines. A keyless entry/remote starter is optional on the V6-powered XLE. Whilst many handheld infantry antitank rockets, missiles and grenades will not penetrate the front armour of a tank, they will, generally speaking, penetrate the weaker, rear, top and perhaps sides, as well as being able to easily damage the running gear to inflict an "M" (mobility) kill. A navigation system with cell-phone link and heated leather seats are available for the SE and the V6-powered XLE. Where tanks are operating in groups this is less of a problem, since they can call on nearby tanks to fire on themselves with machine guns and other light weapons which are unlikely to damage a tank but which will drive off infantry. A spilt-folding rear seat is not available on the SE trim.

Once an infantry man is close to a tank he cannot be targeted by its main weaponry unless the crew expose themselves to attack him, as the main gun and coaxial machine gun can not depress sufficiently to engage the close-in infantry man. The V6 will be available with a 6-speed sequential transmission. However, the tank is a fearsome war machine; it takes confidence, discipline and training to carry this out. It will also have an optional 3.5 L V6 making 268 hp (200 kW) with three trims: LE, SE, and XLE. In theory, it is easy for an infantry man to lie prone, wait behind a tree or other handy cover or inside a building and to quickly dash out as a tank passes. The new Camry has a 2.4 L I4 making 158 hp (118 kW) with 4 trim levels: CE, LE, SE, and XLE. If the crew commander is not closed down, that is, has exposed his head and perhaps upper body for the better view it affords him, then he can of course be shot. It will be a 2007 model introduced at the 2006 North American International Auto Show [4] along with its identical hybrid twin, the Camry HV.

For veteran troops, it is relatively easy for an infantry man to get close to a tank, especially if it is fully closed down (that is, the commander is fully inside the turret) as tanks have very poor visibility close in and especially to the sides and rear, unless the turret is pointing in that direction. The next-generation Camry will be completely redesigned and made in Georgetown, Kentucky. This is why modern tactics insist on tanks being closely supported by friendly infantry. In August 2005 the Altise Sport model was reintroduced (V6 auto only) together with Altise Limited (four-cylinder and V6) that replaced the Altise and has additional features. This can give enemy infantry the initiative, allowing them to spot, track and evade tanks until an opportunity presents itself for a stealthy counter-attack. The Toyota Link system is a state-of-the-art satellite and mobile SMS GSM communications system that gives the driver access to roadside assistance and emergency help via the electrochromatic rear view mirror. The armour and mobility of tanks, while usually notable assets, also makes them large and noisy. The Grande and Azura models have Satellite Navigation (GPS) as standard equipment, and were the first Toyota models in Australia to be fitted with the new Toyota Link system.

The tank is still vulnerable to infantry, especially in close country or built up areas. The Grande however was fitted with the standard suspension rather than the sports suspension as fitted on the Azura model. In fact it is the tank's superiority which has focused so much effort on improving antitank weapons. When the revised range was launched in Australia and New Zealand in September 2004, the Grande model was reintroduced which together with the Azura model, were the top-of-the-range models. Whilst being a tremendously powerful weapon and the undoubted king of the land battlefield, the tank is not invulnerable. Power output on the Altise Sport, V6 Sportivo and Azura models was 145 kW (194 hp) compared with the 141 kW (189 hp) of the standard V6 models due to the variable back pressure exhaust system that boosts low-down torque and top-end power. See also:. The brakes, body panels (which would only fit on the Australian and New Zealand made body and chassis), headlights, seats and suspension were all locally developed after 10000kms of extensive testing in New Zealand under the supervision of Toyota engineers.

In addition to easing the reporting burden, these systems also allow for orders to be given complete with graphics and overlays, via the network. The Australian and New Zealand models were significantly different from the other Camry models around the world and had around 77% locally developed components to suit Australian/NZ roads and driving conditions. These integrate known information on enemy targets and friendly units to greatly improve the tank commander's situational awareness. The Australian and New Zealand Camry Sportivo corresponds roughly to the American Camry SE. tanks are fitted with digital computers which are connected into battlefield networks. In 2003, the V6 Altise Sport model was introduced, which is basically the Altise model with the sports suspension that was fitted on the Sportivo and Azura models and was available in manual and automatic trasmission. U.S. Only the Altise and Sportivo models may be fitted with a manual transmission— all other models are equipped with an automatic transmission.

A recent development in AFV equipment is the increased integration of fire control, the laser range-finder, GPS data, and digital communications. The Altise, Ateva, and Sportivo are available with either the 2.4 L VVTi four cylinder or the 3.0 L V6 engine, and the Azura was only available in V6. More advanced systems allow the commander to take control of the turret and fire the main armament in an emergency. In Australia and New Zealand, the 2002-2006 Camry is available in four different trims: the Altise, Ateva, Sportivo and Azura, . In a main battle tank, the commander has his own panoramic sights (with night-vision equipment), allowing him to designate one or more new targets, while the gunner engages another. Daihatsu continued with its twin Altis model for the Japanese market. Since the 1960s, a tank's commander has had progressively more sophisticated equipment for target acquisition. Unlike the first generation Solara, the SLE trim could be had with the four-cylinder engine.

When taking fire, or in potential NBC conditions, tank crews "button up" and only view the battlefield through vision slits or periscopes, severely reducing their ability to acquire targets and perceive hazards. In addition to SE and SLE trims, a new SE Sport was offered. Most armoured forces operate with the crew commander, and possibly other crew members, "hatches up", for best possible situational awareness. The V6 was coupled with a 5-speed automatic transmission. Communications on a busy network are subject to a set of formalised language rules called radio voice procedure. The 2.4 L engine was still offered, however, a new 3.3 L V6 was optional. Company or battalion commanders' tanks usually have an additional radio. Again, styling from the Camry was radically different, taking design cues from the Lexus SC 430.

A modern tank is usually equipped with radio equipment allowing its crew to communicate on a company or battalion radio network, and possibly to monitor a higher-level network, to co-ordinate with other arms of service. The second generation Camry Solara was introduced in August 2004. From the 1930s to the '50s, most nations' armoured forces became equipped with radios, but visual signals are still used to reduce radio chatter. Interior upgrades to the Camry included a rear center head restraint, a storage bin in the door, optitron gauges, and standard leather seating on XLE V6 models. Signal flares, smoke, movement, and weapons fire are all used by experienced crews to co-ordinate their tactics. A new trim level was added (the standard model) priced lower than the Camry LE. In World War One, situation reports were sent back to headquarters by releasing carrier pigeons through vision slits. In late 2004, the 2005 Camry was introduced with new upgrades such as a chrome grille (though the SE had a sportier grille), a new taillight design, and new wheels.

In the earliest tank operations, communications between the members of an armoured company were accomplished using hand signals or handheld semaphore flags, and in some situations, by crew members dismounting and walking to another tank. However the Solara did receive the same 2.4 L I4 engine now available on the Camry. Some tanks have even been equipped with an external intercom on the rear, to allow co-operating infantry to talk to the crew. The 2002 Camry Solara remained on the fourth generation chassis, and received only minor styling upgrades to the front and rear ends. Most modern AFVs are equipped with an intercom, allowing all crew members to talk to each other, and to operate the radio equipment. Any model may be equipped with a V6 or an automatic transmission, although the manual transmission is not available on V6 models. In many small armoured fighting vehicles, even into the late twentieth century, the crew commander would relay movement orders to the driver by kicks to his shoulders and back. Both the LE and SE models are available with a manual transmission when equipped with the four-cylinder engine now up to 2.4 L and 163 hp (122 kW).

In some early tanks, the crew commander's task was severely hampered by having to load or fire the main armament, or both. In the United States for 2002, the basic CE model was dropped but the SE sport model was reintroduced. Every action of a tank's crew, movement and fire, is ordered by its commander. It is 2.5 in (64 mm) taller and has a 2 in (51 mm) longer wheelbase than the previous model. Armoured bulkheads, engine noise, intervening terrain, dust, and smoke, and the need to operate "hatches down" (or "buttoned up") comprise severe detriments to communications. In contrast to the fairly squat fourth-generation Camry, the fifth generation is a decidedly tall vehicle. Because of the isolation of small units, individual vehicles, and even the crewmen of a tank, special arrangements have had to be made. However, the front end of the car is relatively short, leaving a great deal of the length to the cabin, a technique adopted by compact cars.

Commanding and co-ordinating a tank organisation in the field has always been subject to particular problems. The styling of the fifth-generation Camry is somewhat similar to the fourth-generation model in that both have gently curved surfaces accented by sharp creases. Although the KLA had little chance of destroying the tanks, their purpose was to get the tanks to move whereupon they could be more easily identified and destroyed by NATO air power. This model was launched in most export markets, including the United States, as a 2002 model year car. This changed in the final week of the conflict, when the Kosovo Liberation Army began to engage tanks. In September 2001, the latest Toyota Camry was released as a larger sedan (taking styling cues from the successful Vitz, Corolla and Solara coupé) only, but without a station wagon for the first time (a similarly styled wagon was sold on the Japanese home market however, as the Toyota Mark II Blit). During the initial few weeks of the conflict NATO air sorties were rather ineffective in destroying Serbian tanks. Towards the end of the model run, the limited edition Intrigue and Advantage sedan models were launched.

Getting a tank to move proved to be important in the Kosovo conflict in 1999. The Vienta V6 range was discontinued due to the launch of the Avalon sedan in July 2000 and two new models were added to the Camry range: the top-of-the-range Azura V6 sedan and the Touring Series V6 sportswagon model, both of which were available in automatic transmission only. Another factor in the Gulf War was that, even when camouflaged and not moving, Iraqi tanks at night would cool at a different rate from their surroundings, making thermal detection easier. In September 2000, the revised Camry range was launched. One of the reasons for the one-sided fighting during the Gulf War was that tanks like M1 Abrams had almost four times the night-time infrared scanning range of T-72s used by the Iraqi army. The VXI model was basically a V6-powered version of the 4-cylinder Camry CSX model. A moving tank is thus relatively easy to spot by good land-based or aerial infrared scanners. The Vienta line up consisted of VXI and Grande sedan models and the VXI wagon.

The unusually compact mass of metal of the tank hull dissipates heat in a fashion which marks it off sharply from other objects in the countryside. The Camry V6 Touring Series sedan model was launched in March 1999. The very large power output of modern tank engines (typically in excess of 750kW or 1,000hp) ensure that they produce a distinct thermal signature. The Camry V6 models consisted of CSI and Conquest, with the wagon models only available in automatic transmission. The acoustic signature of a turbine engine is much greater: its high-pitched whine can be much more easily distinguished from other sounds, near or far. The line-up of 4 cylinder Camry models consisted of the CSI, Conquest and CSX models (automatic transmission only), all three variants were available in sedan or wagon. The acoustic and seismic signatures of multi-fuel engines are comparable. In Australia, unlike the previous generation, the nameplate Camry was also applied to the V6 variants, while the Vienta V6 range was revised as the "upmarket" models.

When moving, the vibrations are greater. The Camry V6 was again on Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list for 1997. When a tank stands still with engine running the land trembles around it. This was the first Camry to be sold as a Daihatsu; the Daihatsu Altis was identical to the export version of the Camry. The deep rumble of even a single tank can be heard a great distance on a quiet day, and the sharp diesel smell can be carried far downwind. Manual transmissions were only available on the CE trim level and any Solara model. From the outside a diesel powered tank smells, sounds, and feels quite like a diesel locomotive. Power was increased slightly to 133 hp SAE (99 kW) for the 5S-FE 2.2 L I4 and 194 hp SAE (145 kW) for the 1MZ-FE V6.

Tanks are powered by a diesel or turbine engine of a power comparable to a diesel locomotive. The XLE was available with either the 2.2 L I4 or the 3.0 L V6 engine, although the Solara SLE was only available with the V6. Some camouflage nets are manufactured from unevenly distributed mix of materials with differing thermal properties, which are designed to "randomise" or at least reduce the regularity of the thermal signature of a tank. Both the LE and the XLE trims were carried over from the previous generation. This risk can be reduced somewhat by the use or thermal blankets which reduce the radiation of heat while the engine and tracks cool. In the United States, the four door Camry SE was dropped and the base model was renamed the CE for the 1998 model year. Indeed even if the tank itself is hidden, for example behind a hill, it is still possible for a skilled operator to detect the tank from the column of warmer air above the tank. The Solara was available in SE and SLE trim, corresponding roughly to the sedan's LE and XLE trims.

A recently stopped stationary tank has a considerable heat signature. In contrast to the third-generation Camry two door, the Camry Solara was a significant styling departure from the four door. The tank tracks across lands can be spotted from the air, and in the desert movement can stir up vast dust clouds several times the size of the tanks. The Camry Solara was added in both coupé and convertible form in 1999. In both cases, however, once a tank starts its engine or begins to move it can be detected much more easily due to the heat and noise generated by its engine. The Lexus ES 300 was again built from the Windom, which uses the Camry chassis. By contrast, in the open it is very hard to hide a tank. This "split" continues today.

Stationary tanks can be well camouflaged in woodland and forested areas where there is natural cover, making detection and attack from the air more difficult. In addition, the Vista's sheetmetal resembled a tall, formal sedan, while the Camry became sleeker. Like most modern diesel engines used in tanks, gas turbines are usually multi-fuel engines. The Vista began departing from the Camry, remaining 1700 mm wide and eventually forming the basis of the growing Corolla. Piston engines also need well-maintained filters, but they are more resilient if the filter does fail. The Japanese Scepter ceased to exist as the Japanese Camrys adopted the 1795 mm wide platform. An improperly fitted filter, or a single bullet or piece of shrapnel can render the filter useless, potentially damaging the engine. In 2000, the sedan models received a mid-model upgrade to the front and rear fascias, but remained otherwise similar to the 1999 models.

The turbine blades are also very sensitive to dust and fine sand, so that in desert operations special filters have to be carefully fitted and changed several times daily. This generation was launched in the US for the 1997 model year. In practice, however, those parts experience a higher wear due to their higher working speeds. Many people thought the Toyota RAV4 SUV in North America led to the demise of the Camry wagon. A turbine is theoretically more reliable and easier to maintain than a piston-based engine, since it has a simpler construction with fewer moving parts. It continued as a sedan and station wagon (called the Camry Gracia in Japan), though the latter model was not sold in the United States. The M1A2 was nicknamed Whispering Death for its quiet operation.[1]. The fourth-generation Camry was launched in Japan in December 1996.

On the other hand the acoustic signature of a tank with a muffled gas turbine can be quieter than a piston engine–powered one. Towards the end of the model run, limited edition Getaway and Intrigue sedan models were launched. Because of their lower efficiency, the thermal signature of a gas turbine is higher than a diesel engine at the same level of power output. The Ultima sedan was renamed the Grande model, and manual transmission was now available in the CSI and Touring Series sedan models. Russia has replaced T-80 production with the less powerful T-90 (based on the T-72), while Ukraine has developed the diesel-powered T-80UD and T-84 with nearly the power of the gas-turbine tank. The V6 models were simply known as the Vienta. T-80 tanks are commonly seen with large external fuel tanks to extend their range. The 4 cylinder range consisted of the CSI and CSX models.

Newer models of the M1 have a small secondary turbine engine as an APU to power the tank's systems while stationary, saving fuel by reducing the need to idle the main turbine. In July 1995, the facelifted model was launched in Australia and was now built at the new Altona plant. However they are much less fuel efficient, especially at low RPMs, requiring larger fuel tanks to achieve the same combat range. In 1994, the range was revised slightly, where the Executive models was renamed CSI and the CSI was renamed the CSX model. They are comparatively lighter and smaller than diesel engines; at the same level of sustained power output (the T-80 was dubbed the Flying Tank for its high speed). In 1993, a new sedan model called the Touring Series was launched which was fitted with sports suspension. M1 Abrams. The Camry Vientas were available in automatic transmission only.

Gas turbine engines have been used as an auxiliary power unit (APU) in some tanks, and are the main power plant in the Soviet/Russian T-80 and U.S. The V6 range was known as the Camry Vienta and also consisted of the Executive, CSI and Ultima sedan model. Modern tank engines are in some cases multi-fuel engines, which can operate on diesel, petrol or similar fuels. In Australia, the Camry 4-cylinder models consisted of the Executive, CSI and Ultima sedan models (automatic only). Fuel tanks are commonly placed at the rear of the tank, though in some designs, such as the Israeli Merkava, the diesel fuel tanks are placed around the crew area to provide an additional layer of "armour." Fuel has often been stored in auxiliary tanks externally, or by other means such as in a small trailer towed behind the tank, able to be detached during combat. The third-generation Camry was on Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list for 1992 and 1993. Some Soviet tanks used the dark smoke of burning diesel as an advantage and could intentionally burn fuel in the exhaust to create smoke for cover. (The Japanese version of this page lists this as a 'fifth-generation' model.).

All modern non-turbine tanks use a diesel engine because diesel fuel is less flammable and more economical than petrol. The same year, the Japanese home market saw a revised, 1700 mm wide Camry and Vista, with different sheetmetal, on the same platform. The weight and type of power-plant (influenced by its transmission and drive train) largely determines how fast and mobile the tank is, but the terrain effectively limits the maximum speed of all tanks through the stress it puts on the suspension and the crew. This vehicle would be dropped for the next generation, although it would later be replaced by the Camry Solara (discussed below). Starting in the late 1970s, turbine engines began to appear. In 1994, Toyota released a coupe version of the Camry with styling very similar to the four door version. As the Cold War started, tanks had almost all switched over to using diesel, improved multi-fuel versions of which are still common. This is a similar car to the then new Windom, which formed the basis of the Lexus ES 300 in foreign markets, equipped with a 3.0 L V6 engine.

In the Second World War there was a mix of power-plant types used; a lot of tank engines were adapted aircraft engines. The Vista continued in parallel, available in addition as a hardtop sedan. Tanks fielded in WWI mostly used petrol (gasoline) engines as power-plants, unlike the American Holt Gas-Electric tank which was powered by a petrol (gasoline) engine and an electric engine. The third-generation Camrys had rounded features and a very curved silhouette. The tank's power-plant supplies power for moving the tank and for other tank systems, such as rotating the turret or electrical power for a radio. This was a departure from the second-generation models which, although they had many more rounded panels than the first-generation Camrys, were nevertheless generally slab-sided in shape. Those that did make it ashore, however, provided essential fire support in the first critical hours, getting off the beaches. It shared the rounded-body-panel look of many imports of similar vintage: the Toyota Corolla, Honda Accord, and Nissan Altima, to name a few.

A number of these DDs sank due to rough weather in the Channel (having been launched too far out). Toyota in New Zealand sold these models as the 220 and V6 respectively, the smaller-engined car filling the gap of the departed Corona. The Sherman DD could not fire when afloat as the buoyancy screen was higher than the gun. Some other countries followed the 2.2 L and 3.0 L engine choice. This was referred to as the Sherman DD (Duplex Drive) and was used on D-Day to provide close fire support on the beaches during the initial landings. In addition to the DX (also sometimes called Deluxe) and LE trims, 1992 saw the addition of an XLE luxury trim and the SE sport trim—presumably introduced to compete with the Nissan Maxima SE. It was propelled by propellers driven by the main engine. In that market, both the four and six-cylinder engines received upgrades in displacement and power: the four was upped to 2.2 L and 130 hp SAE (97 kW), and the V6 to 3.0 L and 185 hp SAE (137 kW).

In World War II the M4 Medium (Sherman) tank was made amphibious with the addition of a rubberised canvas screen to provide additional buoyancy. In the United States, an automatic transmission became the only option on all but the base and sport-model Camrys, whereas previously, a manual transmission was available on nearly all trim levels. Often a fold down trim vane is erected to stop water washing over the bow of the tank and thus reducing the risk of the vehicle being swamped via the driver's hatch. The wider export model was called the Toyota Scepter in its home market. Some light tanks such as the PT-76 are amphibious, typically being propelled in the water by hydrojets or by their tracks. However, in Japan, the 1992 Camry was a different vehicle, which shared its doors and fenders with the exported model, but was limited to the 1700 mm (66.9 in) width required to fit into a lower tax bracket (the 'number 5' bracket). However if properly planned and executed this type of operation adds considerable scope for surprise and flexibility in water crossing operations. This model marked the transition away from an inexpensive four door vehicle into a larger, more luxurious family sedan.

This has influenced tactics in those countries where the psychological health of the crews or their capacity for rebellion is taken into account. The third-generation Camry (first sold in 1990 in Japan; in the US as a 1992 model year car) is regarded as the first to break into the large-car market, or what Toyota billed at the time as "world-sized". Tank crews usually have a negative reaction towards deep fording. The second-generation Camry was extremely popular in the United States and it is not at all uncommon to see examples on American roads. This type of fording requires careful preparation of the tank and the ingress and egress sites on the banks of the water obstacle. The ES 250 was essentially the Japanese-market Camry hardtop. Russian snorkels are also fixed in length, providing only a couple of metres of depth over the turret height. The 2.5 L engine and Camry chassis was repackaged as the upscale Lexus ES 250.

Some Russian/Soviet tanks are also able to perform deep fording operations, however unlike the Leopard, the Russian snorkel is only a few inches round and does not provide a crew escape path. The Kentucky plant also began producing Camrys in 1988, where three trim levels of the second-generation Camry were made: the unbadged base model, the DX, and the LE. The height of the tube is limited to around three meters. In 1991, anti-lock brakes became optional on the V6, LE, and wagon models. This tube is then fitted to the crew commander's hatch and provides air and a possible escape route for the crew. The V6 featured dual overhead camshafts, much like the upgraded 130 hp JIS (96 kW) 4 cylinder. The Leopard snorkel is in fact a series of rings which can be stacked to create a long tube. In 1988, all wheel drive (called All-Trac) and a 160 hp JIS (118 kW) 2.5 L V6 engine were added as options for the first time.

The West German Leopard I and Leopard II tanks can ford to a depth of several metres, when properly prepared and equipped with a snorkel. At this point, it was still regarded as a midsize car. However, with preparation some tanks are able to ford considerably deeper waters. The second-generation model debuted in 1986 for the 1987 model year, and included a station wagon but dropped the hatchback. The typical fording depth for MBTs is 90 to 120 cm. Additionally, the vehicle size and available options were characteristic of Japanese-designed cars of the time; the Camry was a small, inexpensive sedan with solid but spartan construction and competed indirectly against larger American counterparts. The fording depth is usually limited by the height of the air intake of the engine, and to a lesser extent the driver's position. The design of the first-generation Camry fit well within the box-shaped trends of the early 1980s.

For most tanks water operations are limited to fording. In contrast to the rear wheel drive Celica Camry, the Toyota Camry was a front wheel drive vehicle built on an all-new platform. These vehicles lack the superior off-road mobility of tracked vehicles, but are considered by United States planners as more suited for rapid reaction forces due to increased strategic mobility. In North America, the Camry was available with a 92 hp SAE (68 kW) 2.0 L I4 engine or a 74 hp 2.0 L I4 turbodiesel engine, and could be purchased with either a five-speed manual transmission or a four-speed automatic. Some tank-like vehicles use wheels instead of tracks in order to increase road speed and decrease maintenance needs. A twin was announced at this point: the Toyota Vista. Using sea and ground transportation is slow, making tanks problematic for rapid reaction forces. At this point, Camry was positioned above the Carina and Corona, two other mid-sized models made by Toyota.

Tanks, especially main battle tanks, are extremely heavy, making it very difficult to airlift them. There were limited exports, predominantly to right-hand-drive markets. Another mobility issue is getting the tank to the theatre of operations. In 1982 for the 1983 model year, the Camry became an independent model line, and was sold as a midsize four-door sedan and five-door hatchback. This is in addition to the tactical halts needed so that the infantry or the air units can scout ahead for the presence of enemy antitank groups. The Celica Camry was also exported to a number of markets using the Carina's name, and it replaced the second-generation Carina in those markets. Frequent halts must be planned for preventive maintenance and verifications in order to avoid breakdowns during combat. During its model cycle, over 100,000 units were sold in Japan.

When moving in a country or region with no rail infrastructure and few good roads, or a place with roads riddled by mines or frequent ambushes, the average speed of advance of a tank unit in a day is comparable to that of a man on a horse or bicycle. Although it has an identical 2500 mm (98.4 in) wheelbase to the Celica, the Corona, and the Carina, it is longer than the Carina but shorter than both the Corona and Celica. Planning for railcar loading and unloading is crucial staff work, and railway bridges and yards are prime targets for enemy forces wishing to slow a tank advance. This is the most sought after version of the Celica Camry in the secondhand market today. Tanks invariably end up on railcars in any country with a rail infrastructure, because no army has enough wheeled transporters to carry all its tanks. Towards the end of its model lifecycle, Toyota introduced a sports version of the Celica Camry equipped with the 16-valve DOHC 2.0 L engine from the Celica. Since an immobilised tank is an easy target for mortars, artillery, and the specialised tank hunting units of the enemy forces, speed is normally kept to a minimum, and every opportunity is used to move tanks on wheeled tank transporters and by railway instead of under their own power. The car used the rear wheel drive Celica platform (which was shared by both the Corona and Carina) and was powered by either a 1.6 L 12T-U engine producing 88 hp JIS (65 kW) and 128 N·m (94 ft·lbf) or a 1.8 L 13T-U engine producing 95 hp JIS (70 kW) and 147 N·m (108 ft·lbf).

Although the maximum off-road speed is lower, it cannot be kept up continuously for a day, given the variety and unpredictability of off-road terrain (with the possible exception of plains and sandy deserts). Originally launched as the Toyota Celica Camry in January 1980 for the Japanese home market, this model was essentially a second-generation Toyota Carina with updated body-styling and a front-end that resembled a 1978 Toyota Celica XX (known as the Celica Supra in export markets). But in practice, the huge weight of the tank combined with the relative weakness of the track assembly makes the maximum road speed of a tank really a burst speed, which can be kept up for only a short time before there is a mechanical breakdown. It should also be noted that the Japanese-language version of this article follows the convention that includes the 1980 to 1982 model. On the road the fastest tank design is not much slower than the average wheeled fighting vehicle design. This article follows the former convention. On paper, or during any test drive of a few hours, a single tank offers better off-road performance than any wheeled fighting vehicle. A fewer number of sources state the first generation to have started in 1980 as the Toyota Celica Camry.

The logistics of getting from point A to point B are not as simple as they appear. Most sources note the first generation Camry to have been produced as a 1983 model. The road speed may be up to 70 km/h. There is some dispute over the generational naming of the Toyota Camry. In "normal" terrain, a tank can be expected to travel at about 30 to 50 km/h. The Camry will no longer be available in Europe from 2006. The types of terrain that do pose a problem are usually extremely soft ground such as swamps, or rocky terrain scattered with large boulders. In Europe, the Camry's success was always limited due to excessive size (which put into competition with the Opel/Vauxhall Omega and Ford Scorpio) and low-build quality when compared to the European-developed Carina E and Avensis.

Its wide tracks disperse the heavy weight of the vehicle over a large area, resulting in a specific ground pressure that might be lower than that of a man's foot. In Australasia, the Camry sells well in comparison to the top-selling family cars, the Ford Falcon and General Motors' Holden Commodore. A main battle tank is designed to be very mobile and able to tackle most types of terrain. In Japan, its only competitor is the Nissan Cefiro (and afterwards, the Nissan Teana), but Nissan consistently outsells Toyota in this market segment. The third is its ability to be transported from one theatre of operation to other, dependent on its weight, air portability and so on. In China, both the Nissan Teana and Honda Accord (some of Camry's main competitors) are produced locally, and hence have a price advantage against the imported Camry. The second is the ability of the tank to be readily transported within a theatre of operation. In most parts of Asia, the Camry remains competitive against the Honda Accord, with the exception of China and Japan.

The first is a function of its engine performance and capability of its running gear and is determined by aspects such as acceleration, speed, vertical obstacle capability and so on. [2] [3]. Mobility of a tank is categorised as Battlefield Mobility, Tactical Mobility, or Strategic Mobility. In US, most recent comparisons have placed the car against the Nissan Altima, Mitsubishi Galant, Mazda6, and the Chevrolet Malibu; and although the Camry isn't always the clear winner, it nevertheless remains a solid competitor. There are essentially two main aspects of mobility to consider, the tank's basic mobility such as its speed across terrain and ability to climb obstacles, and its overall battlefield mobility such as range, what bridges it can cross, and what transport vehicles can move it. North American sales figures between the Accord and the Camry are usually comparable, indicating that consumers in the Camry's target demographic are more interested in the smoother ride and quieter performance of the Camry. Improvements in onboard optical systems are ongoing, in order to overcome this problem. The Camry's perennial competitor, the Honda Accord, is often described as sportier and has traditionally been equipped with a few more performance-oriented options.

Thus, when a tank advances in hostile territory with hatches closed, the commander and the crew might be personally safer, but the tank as a whole is more at risk given the extremely reduced vision. Thereafter, the car is assembled locally and known as the Toyota Kaimeirui, which sounds closer to "Camry". Tank periscopes and other viewing devices give a sharply inferior field of vision and sense of the countryside, despite constant advances in optics and electronics. The Camry was imported into China as the Toyota Jiamei until 2005. In this rather high position the commander can see around the vehicle with no restrictions, and has the greatest chance of spotting enemy antitank operations or natural and unnatural obstacles which might immobilise or slow down the tank. [1]. Paradoxically, a tank is usually in its safest state when the commander is in a personally unsafe position, riding in the open, head out of the turret, with no personal protection save his helmet and a flak jacket. It is also assembled from CKD-kits at Toyota's local partners in Malaysia and Taiwan.

When the system detects hostile fire, it calculates a firing resolution and directs an explosive-launched counter-projectile to intercept or disrupt the incoming fire a few metres from the target. As of 2005, the Camry is produced at Toyota plants in Japan, Australia; and Georgetown, Kentucky, USA, with CKD assembly operations in Vietnam, Philippines; and Thailand. An APS uses radar or other sensing technology to automatically react to incoming projectiles. The continued success of the Nissan Cefiro (and afterwards the Nissan Teana) meant that some customers are willing to pay extra taxes for a larger family car, and so this marketing strategy continued. Active protection systems go one step further than reactive armour. The introduction of the A32-series Nissan Cefiro in 1994 may have prompted Toyota to change its strategy, despite the poor sales of the Scepter, basically a RoW third-generation Camry, which was sold between 1992-1994 (only 4,885 units sold in total). Reactive armour is attached to the outside of an MBT in small, replaceable bricks. Both arguably aimed at the higher-end of the market than the Camry.

Explosive reactive armour, or ERA, is another major type of protection against high explosive antitank weapons, in which sections of armour explode to dissipate the focussed explosive force of a shaped charge warhead. This put the Camry at a disadvantage as its size is placed at the lower-end of a higher tax category, which included cars such as the Crown and Aristo. Passive countermeasures, like the Russian Shtora system, attempt to jam the guidance systems of incoming guided missiles. The Vista is sized according to domestic vehicle tax laws, and the Camry (now called the Camry Gracia) are not adapted, sold identical to foreign market cars. Other passive defences include radio warning devices, which provide warning if the tank is targeted by radar systems that are commonly used to guide antitank weapons such as millimetre and other very short wave radar. Both models still share a large number of components, but the fourth-generation split was the more significant than the previous re-engineered splits. Modern tanks are increasingly being fitted with passive defensive systems such as laser warning devices, which activate an alarm if the tank is "painted" by a laser range-finder or designator. For the fourth-generation Camry, Toyota decided to split the Vista from the Camry.

Generally smoke generators work by injecting fuel into the exhaust, which partially burns the fuel, but leaves sufficient unburned or partially burned particles to create a dense smoke screen. These modified-for-Japan models were called the Vista, which became separate from the Camry in 2000. Some tanks also have smoke generators which can generate smoke continuously, rather than the instantaneous, but short duration of smoke grenades. These versions of the Camry are bounded by a certain set of dimensions which would otherwise be unsuitable for export markets. Since the advent of thermal imagers most tanks carry a smoke grenade that contains a plastic or rubber compound whose tiny burning fragments provide better obscurant qualities against thermal imagers. Prior to the fourth-generation, Toyota adapted the Camry's design to suit Japanese tax laws and domestic market requirements. Prior to the widespread introduction of thermal imaging the most common smoke grenade in AFV launchers was white phosphorus which created a very rapid smoke screen as well as having a very useful incendiary effect against any infantry in the burst area (e.g., infantry attempting to close with hand placed charges or mines). After the introduction of the fourth-generation Camry, sales in Japan dipped.

There have been proposals to equip other tanks with dual-purpose smoke/fragmentation grenade launchers that can be reloaded from the interior. Because there is no station wagon version for the fifth generation Camry, the Camry sedan and the Avensis station wagon are sold side by side in markets like New Zealand. Many Israeli tanks contain small vertical mortar tubes which can be operated from within the tank, enhancing the anti-personnel capabilities and allowing it to engage targets which are behind obstacles. Following long-term poor sales, the Camry was withdrawn altogether from Europe in 2004, leaving the smaller, UK-built Avensis as the top-of-the-line sedan. In many MBTs, such as the French-built Leclerc, the smoke grenade launchers are also meant to launch tear gas grenades and anti-personnel fragmentation grenades. Toyota positioned the Camry as a BMW 5-Series rival, yet it lacked the cachet to compete. Some smoke grenades are designed to make a very dense cloud capable of blocking the laser beams of enemy target designators or range finders and of course obscuring vision, reducing probability of a hit from visually aimed weapons, especially low speed weapons, such as antitank missiles which require the operator to keep the tank in sight for a relatively long period of time. The Camry was less popular in Europe, where the design was considered bland and incompatible with European driving habits.

Modern smoke grenades work in the infrared as well as visible spectrum of light. The Camry is rarely optioned above the Avalon or ES 330, but a fully equipped Corolla slightly overlaps with the base-model Camry. The smoke screen is very rarely used offensively, since attacking through it blocks the attacker's vision and gives the enemy an early indication of impending attack. It is considered a sub-luxury midsize sedan. Most armoured vehicles carry smoke grenade launchers which can rapidly deploy a smoke screen to visually shield a withdrawal from an enemy ambush or attack. The Camry is positioned directly below the Toyota Avalon and the Lexus ES 330 In its two largest markets, Australia and North America. The Israeli Merkava tank takes the design of protection systems to an extreme, using the engine and fuel tanks as secondary armour (back-up armour). It is Toyota's bread-and-butter vehicle, so its marketing and sales strategy is cautious, aimed squarely at the center of buyer demographics; as most Camry buyers are not car enthusiasts.

A form of Chobham armour is encased in depleted uranium on the very well-protected M1A1 Abrams MBT. The Camry is consistently ranked as one of the most popular vehicles in the North American market. One of the best types of passive armour is the British-developed Chobham armour, which is comprised of spaced ceramic blocks contained by a resin-fabric matrix between layers of conventional armour. . Since the 1970s, some tanks have been protected by more complex composite armour, a sandwich of various alloys and ceramics. The name comes from the English phonetic of the Japanese word "kan-muri," which means "crown.". As a defence, some vehicles have a layer of anti-spall material lining their insides. Since 2000, Daihatsu has sold a Camry twin named the Altis.

This may kill the crew without penetrating the armour, still neutralizing the tank. The Holden equivalents were not successful even though they came from the same factory as the Camry. Some antitank ammunition (HESH or HEP) uses flexible explosive material, which squashes against a vehicle's armour, and causes dangerous spalling of material inside the tank when the charge explodes. The second and third-generation Camrys were rebadged to be sold as the Holden Apollo in Australia. Thin plates of spaced armour, steel mesh "RPG screens", or rubber skirts, were found to cause HEAT rounds to detonate too far from the main armour, greatly reducing their penetrating power. Some models have been offered with all wheel drive. These weapons carry a warhead with a shaped charge, which focuses the force of an explosion into a narrow penetrating stream. This means the engine is transversely mounted to drive the front wheels.

High explosive antitank weapons (HEAT), such as the bazooka, were a new threat in the Second World War. Other than the original Celica Camry, the Toyota Camry has always been an FF layout vehicle. Many tracked military vehicles have side skirts, protecting the suspension. The Camry underwent major redesigns and upgrades in model years 1987, 1992 (1990 in Japan), 1997, 2002 and an anticipated redesign is planned to be launched in 2006 for model year 2007 in the United States. Even light infantry antitank weapons can immobilise a tank by damaging its suspension or track. An offshoot of the Camry, the Camry Solara, has been available as a coupe and a convertible. German tank crews were said to be horrified to find that shots fired at the angled plates of T-34s would sometimes simply ricochet. It is primarily configured as a four-door sedan but at different times has also been available as a five-door hatchback, two-door coupe, and a station wagon.

Angling armour plates greatly increases their effectiveness against projectiles, by increasing the effective perpendicular thickness of the armour, and by increasing the chance of deflection. The first model line independently named the Toyota Camry was launched in 1982 for the 1983 model year. The most famous and successful example of this approach at the time was the T-34. The Camry name was first launched in 1980 with the Toyota Celica Camry. Before the Second World War, several tank designers tried sloping the armour on experimental tanks. An upbranded luxury version of the Camry is sold under the Lexus ES nameplate in the United States and is called the Windom in Japan. Even a simple Molotov cocktail on the engine deck, however, may disable or destroy most tanks. In Japan and Asia, its main rivals are the Nissan Teana and the Honda Accord.

Aircraft cannon firing armour-piercing ammunition, such as the Hurribomber's 40mm or Stuka's 37mm, could be effective, also. It has not sold as well in Europe and Japan - many critize its design as ill-suited for European and Japanese tastes. During WW2, aircraft rockets earned a formidable reputation, especially in France after the Normandy landings (Operation Neptune); post-war analysis revealed many reported kills were near-misses. The Camry sells very well in USA, Australia and a number of Asian markets. Today, tanks are vulnerable to specialised top-attack missile weapons and air attack. The United States is the Camry's biggest market, where it competes with the Honda Accord, the Nissan Altima, and the Ford Fusion. World War II American M4 Medium tank crews found the German Tigers to be practically invulnerable from the front, and were forced to employ flank attacks. The Toyota Camry is a popular midsize car manufactured by Toyota in Georgetown, Kentucky, USA; Australia; and Japan.

The sides have less armour and the rear, belly and roof are least protected. The thickest and best-sloped armour is on the glacis plate and the turret front. Most armoured vehicles are best-protected at the front, and their crews always try to keep them pointed toward the likeliest direction of the enemy. The relative effectiveness of armour is expressed by comparison to rolled homogeneous armour.

Most armoured fighting vehicles are manufactured of hardened steel plate, or in some cases aluminium. The amount of armour needed to protect against all conceivable threats from all angles would be far too heavy to be practical, so when designing an MBT much effort goes into finding the right balance between protection and weight. Most modern MBTs do offer near complete protection from artillery fragmentation and lighter antitank weapons such as rocket propelled grenades. Tanks are especially vulnerable to airborne threats.

Tanks are also vulnerable to antitank guided missiles; antitank mines, larger bombs, and direct artillery hits, which can disable or destroy them. Commonly, protection against kinetic energy penetrators fired by other tanks is considered the most important. Its armour is designed to protect the vehicle and crew against a wide variety of threats. The main battle tank is the most heavily armoured vehicle in modern armies.

The United States has abandoned this concept, phasing the M551 and M60A2 out of their forces in favour of helicopters and aircraft for long range anti-tank roles, but CIS countries continue to employ gun-missile systems in their main battle tanks. It also provides the tank with a useful weapon against slow, low-flying airborne targets like helicopters. This functionality can extend the effective combat range of the tank beyond the range afforded by conventional shells, depending on the capabilities of the ATGM system. Some tanks, including the M551 Sheridan, T-72, T-64, T-80, T-90, T-84, and PT-91 can fire ATGMs (anti-tank guided missile) through their gun barrel or from externally mounted launchers.

For accuracy, shells are spun by gun-barrel rifling, or fin-stabilized (APFSDS, HEAT-FS, etc.). There are several types of ammunition designed to defeat armour, including High explosive squash head (HESH, also called high explosive plastic, HEP), High explosive antitank (HEAT), and kinetic energy penetrators (KEP, or armour-piercing discarding sabot APDS). As a result modern tanks can fire reasonably accurately while moving. Laser target designators may also be used to illuminate targets for guided munitions.

Infrared, light-amplification, or thermal night vision equipment is also commonly incorporated. Gyroscopes are used to stabilise the main weapon; computers calculate the appropriate elevation and aim-point, taking input from sensors for wind speed, air temperature, humidity, the gun-barrel temperature, warping and wear, the speed of the target (calculated by taking at least two sightings of the target with the range-finder), and the movement of the tank. Modern tanks have a variety of sophisticated systems to make them more accurate. Most modern main battle tanks in the armies of industrialised countries use laser range-finders but optical and reticule range-finders are still in use in older and less sophisticated vehicles.

These were eventually replaced by Laser range-finders. Over time these sights were replaced with stereoscopic range-finders. Consequently, accuracy was limited at long range and concurrent movement and accurate shooting were largely impossible. Range to the target was estimated with the aid of a reticule (markings in the gun sight which are aligned to frame an object of known size, in this case a tank).

Historically, tank weapons were aimed through simple optical sights and laid onto target by hand, with windage estimated or assisted with a reticule. These specialised weapons are now usually mounted on the chassis of an armoured personnel carrier. Some tanks have been adapted to specialised roles and have had unusual main armament such as flame-throwers. The 12.7-mm and 14.5-mm machine guns commonly carried on US and Russian tanks and the French Leclerc are also capable of destroying lightly-armoured vehicles at close range.

Additionally, many tanks carry a roof-mounted or commander's cupola machine gun for close-in ground or limited air defence. However, a couple of French tanks such as the AMX-30 and AMX-40 carry a coaxial 20mm cannon that has a high rate of fire and can destroy lightly armoured vehicles. Typically, this is a small calibre (7.62 to 12.7 mm) machine gun mounted coaxially with the main gun. Usually, tanks carry other armament for short range defence against infantry or targets where the use of the main weapon would be ineffective or wasteful.

This uneven cooling will cause the barrel to bend slightly and will affect long range accuracy. For instance, if it were to rain on a tank barrel the top would cool faster than the bottom, or a breeze on the left might cause the left side to cool faster then the right. Modern tank guns are generally fitted with thermal jackets which reduce the effect of uneven temperature on the barrel. The British Army and the Indian Army are now the only ones to field main battle tanks carrying rifled guns.

Smoothbore (rather than rifled) guns are the dominant type of gun today. Some tanks can fire missiles through the gun. Tank guns have been able to fire many types of rounds, but their current use is commonly limited to kinetic energy (KE) penetrators and high explosive (HE) rounds. The current common sizes are 120mm calibre for Western tanks and 125mm for Eastern (Soviet and Chinese legacy) tanks.

Although the calibre has not changed substantially since the end of the Second World War, modern guns are technologically superior. Tank guns are among the largest-calibre weapons in use on land, with only a few artillery pieces being larger. The main weapon of any modern tank is a single large gun. Examples of how different countries are influenced in their decisions are as follows:.

How the compromise is achieved is influenced by a combination of factors, including military strategies, budget, geography, political will, and the requirement to sell the tank to other countries. For example, increasing protection by adding armour will increase weight and therefore decrease manoeuvrability; increasing firepower by using a larger gun will decrease both manoeuvrability and protection (due to decreased armour at the front of the turret). Tank design is traditionally held to be a compromise between these three factors—it is not considered possible to maximise all three. It also includes low profile, low noise and thermal signature, active countermeasures and other methods of avoiding enemy fire, and the ability to continue fighting after damage has been sustained.

Protection is the amount of armour, the type(s), how it is arranged (i.e., sloped or not), and which areas are given more protection (e.g., the turret and tracks) and which receive less (e.g., the rear of the chassis). Traditionally AFV mobility is measured by the following metrics:. "Strategic mobility" also includes the ability to travel at high speed on roads, and the ability to be carried on rail or truck transport. Mobility includes the speed and agility of driving cross-country, the types of terrain that can be covered, the dimensions of obstacles, trenches, and water that can be crossed, the ability to cross small bridges, and the distance that can be covered before refuelling is required.

This takes into account the maximum distance at which targets can be engaged, the ability to engage moving targets, the speed with which multiple targets can be attacked, and the capability to defeat armoured vehicles or entrenched infantry. Firepower is the ability of a tank to defeat a target. The psychological effect on enemy soldiers of a tank's imposing battlefield presence is called shock action. The three traditional factors determining a tank's effectiveness are its firepower, mobility and protection.

The advancing capabilities of tanks have been balanced by developments of other tanks and by continuous development of antitank weapons. They had been refined dramatically in response to continually changing threats and requirements, especially the threat of other tanks. Although the basic roles and traits of tanks were almost all developed by the end of WWI, the performance of twenty-first-century counterparts had increased by an order of magnitude. Gun technology remained remarkably similar even to WWI-era gun technology, with most tanks in service still being manually loaded, but with big advances in shell effectiveness.

In response to the threat of antitank guided missiles (ATGMs), the focus in development shifted away from armor thickness, to armor technology. The Centurion replaced all British medium cruiser tanks and led to the demise of the heavy infantry tank class entirely, becoming what the British referred to as the Universal Tank, soon to be known as the main battle tank in most forces, abbreviated MBT. The first tank to 'get it all right' is generally considered to be the British Centurion tank, which (in its later versions) was able to take hits from the infamous German 88 mm gun, was armed with the deadly 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 that was superior to anything in the field, and could reach 56 km/h due to its excellent 650-hp Rolls-Royce Meteor engine. However the Panther was not terribly well armoured, and could not really fight the heavy tanks on an equal basis.

Many consider the turning point to be the Panther, which became the basis for almost every tank design after it. With only slightly more armour and somewhat larger engines to compensate, mediums were suddenly protected against almost all antitank weapons, even those mounted on heavy tanks, while at the same time having the mobility of a medium tank. A combination of better suspensions and greatly improved engines allowed late-war medium tanks to outperform early-war heavies. But the seeds for a true transformation had already been working their way into existing designs.

However, the weight limitations of air transport made a practical light tank almost impossible to build, and this class gradually disappeared over time. use, airborne support as well. Light tanks were now limited to the reconnaissance role, and in U.S. After WWII, tank development proceeded largely as it had before, with improvements to both the medium and heavy classes.

Even post-war, the M60 MBT had a smaller secondary turret for the commander's cupola. Most tanks retained at least one hull machine gun. Multiple-turreted tank designs like the Soviet T-35 were abandoned by World War II. It was appreciated that if the tank's gun was to be used to engage armoured targets then it needed to be as large and powerful as possible, making having one large gun with an all-round field of fire vital.

Turrets, which were not previously a universal feature on tanks, were recognised as the way forward. German and Soviet assault guns, simpler and cheaper than tanks, had the heaviest guns in any vehicles of the war, while American and British tank destroyers were scarcely distinguishable (except in doctrine) from tanks. All major combatant powers also developed specialised self-propelled guns: artillery, tank destroyers, and assault guns (armoured vehicles carrying large-calibre guns). Tank chassis were adapted to a wide range of military jobs, including mine-clearing and combat engineering tasks.

and German, some Soviet; British radios were common, but often of indifferent quality), vastly improving the direction of units. By this time most tanks were equipped with radios (all U.S. Newer systems like the Christie or torsion bar suspension dramatically improved performance, allowing the late-war Panther to travel cross country at speeds that would have been difficult for earlier designs to reach on pavement. Tanks with limited suspension travel subject their crew to massive shaking, making operation difficult, limiting speed, and making firing on the move practically impossible.

Although this might not sound important, the quality of the suspension is the primary determinant of a tank's cross-country performance. Another major wartime advance was the introduction of radically improved suspension systems. By the end of the war the standard German medium tank, the Panther, mounted a powerful, high-velocity 75mm gun and weighed forty-five tonnes. By the end of the war all forces had dramatically increased their tanks' firepower and armour; for instance, the Panzer I had only two machine guns, and the Panzer IV, the "heaviest" early war German design, carried a low-velocity 75mm gun and weighed under twenty tonnes.

However, they fared poorly in direct combat with British tanks and suffered severely against the Soviet T-34, which was superior in armour and weaponry. These fast-moving tanks and other armoured vehicles were a critical element of the Blitzkrieg. Germany for example, initially fielded lightly armoured and lightly armed tanks, such as the Panzer I, which had been intended for training use only. World War II saw a series of advances in tank design.

Tank shape, previously guided purely by considerations of obstacle clearance, now became a trade-off, with a low profile desirable for stealth and stability. Vulnerability to tank and anti-tank fire led to a rapid up-armouring and up-gunning of almost all tank designs. However, tanks designed to cope only with other tanks were relatively helpless against other threats, and were not well suited for the infantry support role. As the numbers of tanks on the battlefield increased, the chance of meetings grew to the point where all tanks had to be effective antitank vehicles as well.

In practice these concepts proved dangerous. Britain took the same path, and both produced light tanks in the hope that with speed, they could avoid being hit, comparing tanks to ducks. This achieved its fullest expression in the United States, where tanks were expected to avoid enemy armour, and let dedicated tank destroyer units deal with them. There was thought put into tank-against-tank combat, but the focus was on powerful antitank guns and similar weapons, including dedicated antitank vehicles.

All came to roughly the same conclusions, Tukhachevsky's integration of airborne pathfinders arguably the most sophisticated; only Germany would actually put the theory to practise, and it was their superior tactics, not superior weapons, that made blitzkrieg so formidable. Fuller's doctrine of WWI was the fount for work by all the main pioneers: Hobart in Britain, Guderian in Germany, Chaffee in the U.S., de Gaulle in France, and Tukhachevsky in the USSR. J.F.C. This one-two punch was the basic combat philosophy of the British tank formations, and was adopted by the Germans as a major component of the blitzkrieg concept.

Once this combined force broke the enemy lines, groups of cruiser tanks would be sent through the gap, operating far behind the lines to attack supply lines and command units. The overall idea was to use infantry tanks in close concert with infantry to effect a breakthrough, their heavy armour allowing them to survive enemy antitank weapons. Finally, the heavy or infantry tanks were heavily armoured and generally very slow. The medium tanks, or cruiser tanks as they were known in the United Kingdom, were somewhat heavier and focussed on long-range high-speed travel.

Light tanks, typically weighing ten tons or less, were used primarily for scouting and generally mounted a light gun that was useful only against other light tanks. Throughout this period several classes of tanks were common, most of this development taking place in the United Kingom. Patton, with tank experience during WWI, transferred from the Armored branch back to the Cavalry branch during this period. Even George S.

The US did little development during this period because the Cavalry branch was senior to the Armored branch and managed to absorb most of the funding earmarked for tank development. France and Germany did not engage in much development during the early inter War years due to the state of their economy, and the Versailles Treaty respectively. The British designs were the most advanced, due largely to their interest in an armored force during the 1930s. With the tank concept now established, several nations designed and built tanks between the two world wars.

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. Demands from infantry to have tanks close by during attacks would have pernicious effects on British tank design and tactics well into WW2. They only produced approximately twenty of their own design, the A7V.

Germany fielded a small number of tanks, mainly captured, during World War I. Changing battlefield conditions and continued unreliability forced Allied tanks to continue evolving for the duration of the war, producing models such as the very long Mark V, which could navigate large obstacles, especially wide trenches, more easily than many modern armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs). German forces suffered from shock and lacked counter-weapons, though they did (accidentally) discover solid anti-tank shot, and the use of wider trenches to limit the British tanks' mobility. Deployment in small groups also lessened their tactical value and impact, which was still formidable during first encounters.

Initial results with tanks were mixed, with problems in reliability (and impatient high command) causing considerable attrition in combat. The tank would eventually make trench warfare obsolete, and the thousands of tanks fielded during the war by French and British forces made a significant contribution. The first successful use of massed tanks in combat occurred at the Battle of Cambrai on November 20, 1917. The French developed the Schneider CA1 working from Holt caterpillar tractors, and first used it on April 16, 1917.

Mortimore of the Royal Navy took a Mark I into action at Delville Wood during the Battle of the Somme on September 15, 1916. W. The first tank became operational when Captain H. The word tank was used to give the workers the impression they were constructing tracked water containers for the British army in Mesopotamia, and it was made official on December 24, 1915.

Although initially termed landships by the Admiralty, the initial vehicles were colloquially referred to as water-carriers, later shortened to tanks, to preserve secrecy. The first successful prototype tank, nicknamed Little Willie, was tested for the British Army on September 6, 1915. Having already seen Rolls Royce armoured cars used by Royal Naval Air Service in 1914, and aware of schemes to create a tracked fighting vehicle, First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill sponsored the Landships Committee to oversee development of this new weapon. .

Although weapons systems and armour continue to be developed, many nations have been reconsidering the need for such heavy weaponry in a period characterised by unconventional warfare. Tanks and armour tactics have undergone many generations of evolution over nearly a century. The name tank first arose in British factories making the hulls of the first battle tanks: the workmen were given the impression they were constructing tracked water containers for the British Army, hence keeping the production of a fighting vehicle secret. Tanks were first used in the First World War to break the deadlock of the trenches, and they evolved to gradually assume the role of cavalry on the battlefield.

Tanks are also at a disadvantage in wooded terrain and urban environments, which cancel the advantages of the tank's long-range firepower and limit the crew's ability to detect potential threats. Without such support, tanks, despite their armour and mobility, are vulnerable to infantry, mines, artillery, and air power. While tanks are powerful fighting machines, they seldom operate alone, being organized into armoured units in combined arms forces. While tanks are expensive to operate and logistically demanding, they are among the most formidable and versatile weapons of the modern battlefield, both for their ability to engage other ground targets and their shock value against infantry.

A tank is characterized by heavy weapons and armour, as well as by a high degree of mobility that allows it to cross rough terrain at relatively high speeds. A tank is a tracked armoured fighting vehicle, designed primarily to engage enemy forces by the use of direct fire. C4ISTAR. Command, control, and communications (C3I).

Military communications. To this end it is the only nation to have produced a main battle tank with the engine placed at the front and fuel surrounding the crew, to increase protection. Its primary concern is therefore crew survivability. Israel is a small, but relatively rich, nation, with limited manpower in a hostile political environment.

Extensive maintenance is expected to be done in specialized depots. State-controlled design development proceeds in incremental changes. Soviet tanks are traditionally rugged, simple for production and maintenance ("quantity turns into quality"), as exemplified by the T-34. Enhanced reliability and lower maintenance requirements have also been important design goals.

As a result, German tanks since have been designed to be very manoeuvrable, with a resulting decrease in protection. It lost more of its insufficiently-developed Tiger and Panther tanks due to mechanical breakdowns than enemy action. Germany's tanks were completely outmatched by the Soviet T-34 on the WWII Eastern front. As their tanks are expected to rarely be away from support and repair units, less emphasis is placed on the crew's ability to maintain the tank themselves or to continue fighting with it once damage has been sustained.

The USA has a large army with sophisticated weaponry and a complex array of mobile support services. As limited resources may be available, the crew needs to be able to maintain their tanks in the field. Britain maintains a small, highly trained professional army, and so tank crew survivability is important. Britain has historically opted for better firepower and increased protection at the expense of some manoeuvrability.

prepared fording depth (if different). unprepared fording depth. ground clearance. angle of side slope that can be negotiated.

angle of slope that can be climbed. vertical step climbed. width of trench crossed. ground pressure.

weight (bridge classification). off-road range. road range. off-road speed (a somewhat nebulous figure given the possible variation).

road speed. power-to-weight ratio. engine torque. engine power.