Sergeant York

Since "the margin of error" with regard to the number of Stalin's victims is virtually impossible to narrow down to a universally accepted figure, various historians have come up with extremely varying estimates of the number of victims, the highest being 60 million deaths. Note that the figure of 14 million does not have to imply 14 million additional deaths, since as many as 3 million may be births that never took place due to reduced fertility and choice. A census was taken again in 1939, but its published figure of 170 million has been generally attributed directly to the decision of Stalin^[7] (see also Demographics of the Soviet Union). This was 14 million less than the projected population value and was suppressed as a "wrecker's census" with the census takers severely punished.

The 1926 census shows the population of the Soviet Union at 147 million and in 1937 another census found a population of between 162 and 163 million. Comparison of the 1926–37 census results suggests 5–10 million deaths in excess of what would be normal in the period, mostly through famine in 1931–34. Although no official figures have been released by the Soviet or Russian governments, most estimates put the figure between 10 and 50 million. How many millions died under Stalin is greatly disputed.

It is generally agreed by historians that if famines, prison and labor camp mortality, and state terrorism (deportations and political purges) are taken into account, Stalin and his colleagues were directly or indirectly responsible for the deaths of millions. See massacre of prisoners. It became known as Katyn massacre. On March 5, 1940, Stalin himself and other Soviet leaders signed the order to execute 25,700 Polish intelligentsia including 14,700 Polish POWs.

In Georgia about 80,000 people were shot during 1921, 1923–24, 1935–38, 1942 and 1945-50, and more than 100,000 people were transported to Gulag camps. About one million people were shot during the periods 1935–38, 1942 and 1945–50 and millions of people were transported to Gulag labor camps. The memory of the deportations played a major part in the separatist movements in the Baltic republics, Tatarstan and Chechnya. The deportations had a profound effect on the peoples of the Soviet Union.

In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninist principles, and reversed most of them, although it was not until as late as 1991 that the Tatars, Meskhs and Volga Germans were allowed to return en masse to their homelands. Large numbers of Kulaks, regardless of their nationality, were resettled to Siberia and Central Asia. The following ethnic groups were deported completely or partially: Poles, Koreans, Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays, Meskhetian Turks, Finns, Bulgarians, Greeks, Armenians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Estonians. Separatism, resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the invading Germans were cited as the main official reasons for the deportations.

Over 1.5 million people were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. Shortly before, during and immediately after World War II, Stalin conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale which profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. Main article: Population transfer in the Soviet Union. Some historians such as Amy Knight and Robert Conquest postulate that Stalin had Yezhov and his predecessor, Yagoda, removed in order to deflect blame from himself.

He was subsequently executed. Towards the end of the purge, the Politburo relieved NKVD head Nikolai Yezhov, from his position for overzealousness. The Russian word troika gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to NKVD. Over time the procedure was greatly simplified and delegated down the line of command.

Initially, the execution lists for the enemies of the people were confirmed by the Politburo. Article 58 of the legal code, listing prohibited "anti-Soviet activities", was applied in the broadest manner. No segment of society was left untouched during the purges. However, it has been argued that Stalin only continued the political repressions that had started under Lenin's regime, such as labor camps and express executions of political opponents.

The repression of so many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from that of Lenin. Only three members of the "Old Bolsheviks" (Lenin's Politburo) now remained in Politburo —Stalin himself, "the all-Union Chieftain" (всесоюзный староста) Mikhail Kalinin, and Chairman of Sovnarkom Vyacheslav Molotov. Trotsky's August 1940 assassination in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since 1936, eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership. There were four key trials during this period: the Trial of the Sixteen (August 1936); Trial of the Seventeen (January 1937); the trial of Red Army generals, including Marshal Tukhachevsky (June 1937); and finally the Trial of the Twenty One (including Bukharin) in March 1938.

Several trials known as the Moscow Trials were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. Some argue that a motive for the purge was a feeling that the Party needed to be unified in the face of anticipated conflict with Nazi Germany; others believe that it was motivated only by Stalin's desire to consolidate his own power. Measures ranged from imprisonment in Gulag labor camps to execution after a show trial or summary trial by NKVD troikas. Stalin, as head of the Politburo, consolidated near-absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of his political and ideological opponents (real or merely suspected), culminating in the extermination of the majority of the original Bolshevik Central Committee and of over half of the largely pliant delegates of the 17th Party Congress in January 1934.

Main article: Great Purge. Just days before Stalin's death, certain religious sects were outlawed and persecuted. The Church Synod's recognition of the Soviet government and of Stalin personally led to a schism with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia that remains not fully healed to the present day. During World War II, however, the Church was allowed a partial revival, as a patriotic organization: thousands of parishes were reactivated, until a further round of suppression in Khrushchev's time.

Continuous persecution in the 1930s resulted in its near-extinction: by 1939, active parishes numbered in the low hundreds (down from 54,000 in 1917), many churches had been levelled, and tens of thousands of priests, monks and nuns were dead or imprisoned. Stalin's role in the fortunes of the Russian Orthodox Church is complex. (This was actually just a joke: the hotel had been built by two independent teams of architects that had different visions of how the hotel should look.). An amusing anecdote has it that the Moskva Hotel in Moscow was built with mismatched side wings because Stalin had mistakenly signed off on both of the two proposals submitted, and the architects had been too afraid to clarify the matter.

In architecture, a Stalinist Empire Style (basically, updated neoclassicism on a very large scale, exemplified by the seven skyscrapers of Moscow) replaced the constructivism of the 1920s. Similarities have been pointed out between this novel and Sergei Eisenstein's film, Ivan the Terrible, produced under Stalin's tutelage. Some insights into Stalin's political and esthetic thinking might perhaps be gleaned by reading his favorite novel, Pharaoh, by the Polish writer Bolesław Prus, a historical novel on mechanisms of political power. His play, "The Days of the Turbins," with its sympathetic treatment of an anti-Bolshevik family caught in the Civil War, was finally staged, apparently also on Stalin's intervention, and began a decades-long uninterrupted run at the Moscow Arts Theater.

For example, Mikhail Bulgakov was driven to poverty and despair; yet, after a personal appeal to Stalin, he was allowed to continue working. Stalin's occasional beneficence showed itself in strange ways. His name, however, was constantly invoked during his reign in discussions of culture as in just about everything else; and in several famous cases, his opinion was final. The degree of Stalin's personal involvement in general and specific developments has been assessed variously.

It is of note that Anna Akhmatova was subjected to several cycles of suppression and rehabilitation, but was never herself arrested, although her first husband, poet Nikolai Gumilev, had been shot in 1921, and her son, historian Lev Gumilev, spent two decades in the Gulag. A number of former emigrés returned to the Soviet Union, among them Alexei Tolstoi in 1925, Alexander Kuprin in 1936, and Alexander Vertinsky in 1943. Others, both representing the "Soviet man" (Arkady Gaidar) and remnants of the older pre-revolutionary Russia (Konstantin Stanislavski), thrived. Famous names were repressed, both "revolutionaries" (among them Isaac Babel, Vsevolod Meyerhold) and "non-conformists" (for example, Osip Mandelstam).

Careers were made and broken, some more than once. Previously fashionable "revolutionary" expressionism, abstract art, and avant-garde experimentation were discouraged or denounced as "formalism.". It was during Stalin's reign that the official and long-lived style of Socialist Realism was established for painting, sculpture, music, drama and literature. Likewise, the generation that grew up under Stalin saw a major expansion in job opportunities, especially for women.

General education was free and was dramatically expanded, with many more Soviet citizens learning to read and write, and higher education also expanded. Campaigns were carried out against typhus, cholera, and malaria; the number of doctors was increased as rapidly as facilities and training would permit; and death and infant mortality rates steadily declined. Stalin's government placed heavy emphasis on the provision of free medical services. Indeed, many politicians in the United States began to fear, after the "Sputnik crisis," that their country had been eclipsed by the Soviet Union in science and in public education.

It laid the ground for the famous achievements of Soviet science in the 1950s, such as the development of the BESM-1 computer in 1953 and the launching of Sputnik in 1957. Nevertheless, great progress was made under Stalin in some areas of science and technology. They were persecuted for their (real or imaginary) dissident views, and seldom for "politically incorrect" research. Lev Shubnikov, shot in 1937).

Scientific research in nearly all areas was hindered by the fact that many scientists were sent to labor camps (including Lev Landau, later a Nobel Prize winner, who spent a year in prison in 1938–39) or executed (e.g. Although no great theoretical contributions or insights came from it, neither were there any apparent errors in Stalin's understanding of linguistics; his influence arguably relieved Soviet linguistics from the sort of ideologically driven theory that dominated genetics. Stalin's principal work discussing linguistics is a small essay, Marxism and Linguistic Questions ^[6]. Stalin, who had previously written about language policy as People's Commissar for Nationalities, felt he grasped enough of the underlying issues to coherently oppose this simplistic Marxist formalism, ending Marr's ideological dominance over Soviet linguistics.

At the beginning of Stalin's rule, the dominant figure in Soviet linguistics was Nikolai Yakovievich Marr, who argued that language is a class construction and that language structure is determined by the economic structure of society. Linguistics was the only area of Soviet academic thought to which Stalin personally and directly contributed. In the late 1940s there were also attempts to suppress special and general relativity, as well as quantum mechanics, on grounds of "idealism." However, top Soviet physicists made it clear that without using these theories, they would be unable to create a nuclear bomb. However, in several cases the consequences of ideological pressure were dramatic, the most notable examples being the "bourgeois pseudosciences," genetics and cybernetics.

On the positive side, there was significant progress in "ideologically safe" domains due to the free Soviet education system and state-financed research. Science in the Soviet Union was under strict ideological control, along with art, literature and everything else. Main article: Research in the Soviet Union.. Similar detailed references can be found here [5].

167). The Soviet Union exported grain while millions of Soviet citizens were starving to death (p. 164). It also documents that peasants were forced to remain in the starving areas, sales of train tickets were stopped, and the State Political Directorate set up barriers to prevent people from leaving the starving areas (p.

The Black Book of Communism documents that all grains were taken from areas that did not meet targets, including the next year's seed grain. Not only rich peasants were killed. (Chairman Mao Zedong of China would trigger a similar famine in 1958 to 1960 with his Great Leap Forward.). Many historians agree that the disruption caused by forced collectivization was largely responsible for major famines which caused up to 5 million deaths in 1932–33, particularly in Ukraine and the lower Volga region.

The two-stage progress of collectivization — interrupted for a year by Stalin's famous editorial, "Dizzy with success" (Pravda, March 2, 1930) — is a prime example of his capacity for tactical retreats. Therefore those defined as "kulaks," "kulak helpers" and later "ex-kulaks" were to be shot, placed into Gulag labor camps, or deported to remote areas of the country, depending on the charge. Stalin blamed this unexpected drop on kulaks (rich peasants), who resisted collectivization. In the first years of collectivization, it was estimated that industrial and agricultural production would rise by 200% and 50%^[4], respectively; however, agricultural production actually dropped.

Collectivization also meant a drastic drop in living standards for many peasants, and it faced widespread and often violent resistance among the peasantry. Collectivization meant drastic social changes, on a scale not seen since the abolition of serfdom in 1861, and alienation from control of the land and its produce. The theory behind collectivization was that it would replace small-scale unmechanized and inefficient farms with large-scale mechanized farms that would produce food far more efficiently. Stalin's regime moved to force collectivization of agriculture.

Main article: Collectivization in the USSR. Second, there was frequent "mobilization" of communists and Komsomol members for various construction projects. First, there was use of the almost free labor of prisoners in forced-labor camps. In specific but common cases, industrial labor was knowingly underpaid.

With no seed capital, little foreign trade, and barely any modern industry to start with, Stalin's government financed industrialization by both restraining consumption on the part of ordinary Soviet citizens, to ensure that capital went for re-investment into industry, and by ruthless extraction of wealth from the peasantry. The Soviet Union, generally ranked as the poorest nation in Europe in 1922, now industrialized at a phenomenal rate, far surpassing Germany's pace of industrialization in the 19th century and Japan's earlier in the 20th. In spite of early breakdowns and failures, the first two Five-Year Plans achieved rapid industrialization from a very low economic base. These called for a highly ambitious program of state-guided crash industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture.

Under Stalin's direction, the New Economic Policy, which allowed a degree of market flexibility within the context of socialism, was replaced by a system of centrally ordained Five-Year Plans in the late 1920s. Industrial output in 1922 was 13% of that in 1914. The Russian Civil War had had a devastating effect on the country's economy. Main article: Industrialization of the USSR.

However, as the popularity of other leaders such as Sergei Kirov and the so-called Ryutin Affair were to demonstrate, Stalin did not achieve absolute power until the Great Purge of 1936–38. Having also outmaneuvered Bukharin's Right Opposition and now advocating collectivization and industrialization, Stalin can be said to have exercised control over the party and the country. By 1928 (the first year of the Five-Year Plans) Stalin was supreme among the leadership, and the following year Trotsky was exiled because of his intrigues. Together they fought a new opposition of Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev.

Stalin would soon switch sides and join with Bukharin. During this period, Stalin abandoned the traditional Bolshevik emphasis on international revolution in favor of a policy of building "Socialism in One Country", in contrast to Trotsky's theory of Permanent Revolution. After Lenin's death in January 1924, Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev together governed the party, placing themselves ideologically between Trotsky (on the left wing of the party) and Bukharin (on the right). However, this document was suppressed by members of the Central Committee, many of whom were also criticised by the Bolshevik leader in the testament.

Stalin's accumulation of personal power increasingly alarmed the dying Lenin, and in Lenin's Testament he famously called for the removal of the "rude" Stalin, also stating that Stalin's views were too extreme and violent. This allowed him to fill the party with his allies. The position had great influence on who joined the party. This position was an unwanted one within the party (Stalin was sometimes referred to as "Comrade Card-Index" by fellow party members) but Stalin saw its potential as a power base.

In April 1922 Stalin became general secretary of the ruling Communist Party, a post that he subsequently built up into the most powerful in the country. Also, he was People's Commissar of Workers and Peasants Inspection (1919–22), a member of the Revolutionary Military Council of the republic (1920–23) and a member of the Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets (from 1917). Stalin's first government position was as People's Commissar of Nationalities Affairs (1917–23). During the Russian Civil War and Polish-Soviet War, Stalin was political commissar of the Red Army at various fronts.

According to many accounts, Stalin only played a minor role in the revolution of November 7.Other writers such as Adam Ulam stressed that each man in the Central Committee had a job he was assigned to do. In April 1917, Stalin was elected to the Central Committee with the third highest vote total in the party and was subsequently elected to the Politburo of the Central Committee (May 1917); he held this position for the remainder of his life. When Lenin returned from exile, he wrote the April Theses which put forward his position. Following the February Revolution, Stalin and the editorial board took a position in favor of supporting Kerensky's provisional government and, it is alleged, went to the extent of declining to publish Lenin's articles arguing for the provisional government to be overthrown.

In 1917 Stalin was editor of Pravda while Lenin and much of the Bolshevik leadership were in exile. In 1912 Stalin was co-opted to the Bolshevik Central Committee at the Prague Party Conference. Several historians, including Alexander Solzhenitsyn, had mentioned a son being born to Stalin and his common law wife, Lida, in 1918 during his exile in northern Siberia. Yuri Davydov told NTV that his father had told him of his lineage, but, because the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality was in full swing at the time, he was told to keep quiet.

In March 2001, Russian Independent Television NTV discovered a previously unknown grandson living in Novokuznetsk. Stalin is said to have remained bitter at his mother because of her forcing him to join the Tiflis Theological Seminary, and is reputed to have called her "an old whore.". Stalin's mother died in 1937; he did not attend the funeral but instead sent a wreath. Stalin doted on Svetlana when she was young, but she ended up defecting from the Soviet Union in 1967.

Vassili rose through the ranks of the Soviet Air Force, but died an alcoholic in 1962. With her, he had two children: a son, Vassili, and a daughter, Svetlana. It is alleged that Stalin had said "She died an enemy," at her funeral. "Officially", she died of an illness, but other theories claim that Stalin himself killed her.

His second wife was Nadezhda Alliluyeva, who died in 1932; she may have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel with Stalin, leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was "partly personal, partly political"^[3]. Nonetheless, there are many who believe his death was a suicide. This however, is the "official report", and to this day, his cause of death is not known. They offered to exchange him for a German officer, but Stalin turned the offer down, allegedly saying "I have no son named Yakov," and Yakov is said to have died running into an electric fence in the camp where he was being held.

Yakov served in the Red Army and was captured by the Nazis. With her he had a son, Yakov Dzhugashvili, with whom he did not get along in later years. At her funeral, Stalin said that any warm feelings he had for people died with her, for only she could mend his heart. Stalin's first wife was Ekaterina Svanidze, to whom he was married for just three years until her death in 1907.

This treatise may have contributed to his appointment as People's Commissar for Nationalities Affairs after the revolution (see Lenin's article On the right of nations to self-determination for comparison). It presents an orthodox Marxist position on this important debate. His only significant contribution to the development of Marxist theory at this time was a treatise, written while he was briefly in exile in Vienna, Marxism and the national question. In 1913 he adopted the name Stalin, which means "man of steel" in Russian.

Some historians have argued that, during this period, Stalin was actually a Tsarist spy, who was working to infiltrate the Bolshevik party, but there are no reliable documents to substantiate this. His practical experience made him useful in Lenin's Bolshevik party, gaining him a place on its Central Committee in January 1912. He adhered to Vladimir Lenin's doctrine of a strong centralist party of professional revolutionaries. He worked for a decade with the political underground in the Caucasus, experiencing repeated arrests and exile to Siberia between 1902 and 1917.

Stalin was expelled from the seminary in 1899 for these actions. During these school years, Stalin joined a Georgian Social-Democratic organization, and began propagating Marxism. Stalin's involvement with the socialist movement (or, to be more exact, that branch of it that later became the communist movement) began at the seminary. Although his mother wanted him to be a priest (even after he had become leader of the Soviet Union), he attended seminary not because of any religious vocation, but because it was one of the few educational opportunities available as the Tsarist government of Russia was wary of establishing a university in Georgia.

In addition to the small stipend from the scholarship he was also paid for singing in the choir. He graduated first in his class and age 14 he was awarded a scholarship to the Tiflis Theological Seminary, a Russian Orthodox institution which he attended from 1894 onward. Stalin's favorite hero of these stories was a legendary mountain ranger named Koba, which became his first alias as a revolutionary. The stories he read told of Georgian mountaineers who valiantly fought for Georgian independence.

Although Stalin later sought to hide his Georgian origins, during his childhood he was fascinated by Georgian folklore. His peers were mostly the sons of affluent priests, officials, and merchants. Even when speaking in Russian, their Russian teachers mocked Stalin and his classmates because of their Georgian accents. However, at school they were forced to use Russian.

Stalin and his classmates were mostly Georgian and spoke one of the seventy Caucasian languages. When attending school in Gori, Soso was among a very diverse group of students. At eight years old, Soso began his education at the Gori Church School. Rumors said he died in a drunken bar fight; however, others said they had seen him in Georgia as late as 1931.

In 1888, Stalin's father left to live in Tiflis, leaving the family without support. Stalin surprised his colleagues by not only receiving the elderly man, but happily chatting with him in public places. Decades later, Papismedov came to the Kremlin to learn what had become of little Soso. Papismedov gave Joseph, who would help out his mother, money and books to read, and encouraged him.

One of the people for whom Ekaterina did laundry and housecleaning was a Gori Jew, David Papismedov. He also said that anyone with power over others reminded Stalin of his father's cruelty. Another of his childhood friends, Iremashvili, felt that the beatings by Stalin's father gave him a hatred of authority. One of Stalin's friends from childhood wrote, "Those undeserved and fearful beatings made the boy as hard and heartless as his father." The same friend also wrote that he never saw him cry (Hoober 15).

Rarely seeing his family and drinking heavily, Vissarion often beat his wife and small son. He opened his own shop, but quickly went bankrupt, forcing him to work in a shoe factory in Tiflis (Archer 11). Vissarion Ivanovich Jugashvili was a former serf who, when freed, became a cobbler. Their other three children died young; Joseph, nicknamed "Soso" (the Georgian pet name for Joseph, or the equivalent of the nickname "Joe" in the United States), was effectively an only child.

His mother, Ekaterina Geladze, was born a serf. Stalin was born in Gori, Georgia, to a cobbler named Vissarion Jughashvili. . ^[2].

Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin's successor, denounced his mass repressions and cult of personality in 1956, initiating the process of "de-Stalinization". Stalin's cult of personality, his concentration of power and the means of its execution has led to a common characterization of him as a dictator and to an opinion that he was personally responsible, directly or indirectly, via his policies, for millions or tens of millions of deaths and unjust imprisonments in the Soviet Union. A hard-won victory in World War II (the Great Patriotic War, 1941–45), made possible in part through the capacity for production that was the outcome of industrialization, laid the groundwork for the formation of the Warsaw Pact and established the USSR as one of the two major world powers, a position it maintained for nearly four decades following Stalin's death in 1953. However, collectivization was violently resisted by many peasants, resulting in millions of casualties amid famine and mass repression against peasants deemed "kulaks" by the authorities.

Under Stalin, who replaced the New Economic Policy (NEP) of the 1920s with five year plans (introduced in 1928) and collective farming, the Soviet Union was transformed from a largely peasant society to a major world industrial power by the end of the 1930s. Stalin molded the features that characterized the new Soviet regime; his policies, based on Marxist–Leninist ideology, are often considered to represent a political and economic system called Stalinism. In the 1930s Stalin eliminated effective political opposition both within the Party and among the population (see Gulag) and consolidated his authority with the Great Purge, a period of widespread arrests and executions which reached its peak in 1937, remaining in power through World War II and until his death. Stalin became general secretary of the Soviet Communist Party in 1922 and following the death of Vladimir Lenin, he prevailed over Leon Trotsky in a power struggle during the 1920s.

His name is anglicized from Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин) but his original name was Ioseb Dzughashvili (Georgian: იოსებ ჯუღაშვილი; see Other names section).  Joseph Stalin^? (December 21, 1879^[1] – March 5, 1953) was the leader of the Soviet Union from mid-1920s to his death in 1953 and General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1922-1953), a position which had later become that of party leader. Svetlana Alliluyeva (Svetlana Stalin, Stalin's daughter). Stalin Society.

Stalin Peace Prize. Nadezhda Alliluyeva-Stalin (Stalin's second wife). History of the Soviet Union. Criticisms of communism.

Animal Farm (an allegory about the Russian Revolution and Stalinism, by George Orwell). 1936 Soviet Constitution. RJ Rummel, "Death By Government". Chapter 1 of Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives by Edvard Radzinsky.

Robert C. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929, Norton, 1973, ISBN 039305487X. Robert C. Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004, ISBN 1400042305.

Donald Rayfield, Stalin and His Hangmen : The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him, Random House, 2004, ISBN 0375506322. Walter Laqueur, Stalin, Ediciones B, 2003, ISBN 8466613161. Isaac Deutscher, Stalin: A Political Biography, Oxford University Press, 1966, ISBN 0195002733. Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine, Oxford University Press, 1987, ISBN 0195051807.

Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, Oxford University Press, 1991, ISBN 0195071328. Alan Bullock, Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives, HarperCollins, 1991, ISBN 0679729941. 144–145. Calvert, "The Concept of Class", New York 1982, pp.

402; P. Konstantinov, Moscow 1951, p. B. by F.

589 "Istoricheskij materializm", ed. ^  Stalin, "Voprosy leninizma", 2nd ed., Moscow, p. Cunningham, 1999 & 2001, retrieved 2005-02-03 from http://www.cyberussr.com/rus/revision.html. Anti Soviets, Hugo S.

^  Revisionists vs. Stalin, Pravda, 1950-06-20, available online as Marxism and Problems of Linguistics including other articles and letters published (also in Pravda) soon after on 1950-07-04 and 1950-08-02. ^  Concerning Marxism in Linguistics, J.V. ^  page 133, Koba the Dread, ISBN 0786868767; page 354, Stalin: The Man and His Era, ISBN 0807070017, In a footnote he quotes the press announcement as speaking of her "sudden death"; he also cites pages 103–5 of his daughter's book, Twenty Letters to a Friend, the Russian edition, New York, 1967.

^  Excerpts from Nikita Khrushchev's speech "On the Personality Cult and its Consequences" can be read online (Internet Modern History Sourcebook) at [10].
. ^  From http://historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?HistoryID=ac14&ParagraphID=qxe#qxe. He himself maintained that he was born on December 21, 1879 (December 9, Old Style), and that was the day his birthday was celebrated in the Soviet Union. ^  According to the birth register of the Uspensky church in Gori, Georgia, Stalin was born on December 6, 1878.

The Inner Circle - A 1991 Hollywood movie. Stalin - A 1992 Hollywood movie.