Radio control

Some remotely-controlled devices are loosely called robots, but are more properly categorized as teleoperators since they do not operate autonomously, but only under control of a human operator. A list of such countries is available in the pretender article. Radio-controlled teleoperators are used for such purposes as inspections, and special vehicles for disarming of bombs. In many countries that are legally republics, there is an heir to the throne who is recognized by part of the nation. Today radio control is used in industry for such devices as overhead cranes and switchyard locomotives. Not only are the Monarchs of constitutive monarchies part of the federal establishment of both present elective monarchies (Malaysia, mainly sultanates, and the UAE, so named after its emirates), in many other modern states -often republics- tribal and other traditional states persist, with a dynasty that retains a court and often local prestige and influence; some are officially installed with the consent of the official government (as some of the many in Indonesia- waiting for the go-ahead can mean years of vacancy on the throne), other merely condoned, or even in exile. The most outstanding example of remote radio control of a vehicle are the Mars Exploration Rovers such as Sojourner. (see also List of countries by system of government).

Instead of a "turn left" signal that is applied until the aircraft is flying in the right direction, the system sends a single instruction that says "fly to this point". There are curently 29 active monarchies. Remote control military applications are typically not radio control in the direct sense, directly operating flight control surfaces and propulsion power settings, but instead take the form of instructions sent to a completely autonomous, computerized automatic pilot. The Constitution designates him Head of State for life with a royal style, but he will be succeeded by an elected president. Advantages include bit error checking capabilities of the data stream (good for signal integrity checking) and fail-safe options including motor (if the model has a motor) throttle down and similar automatic actions based on signal loss. The president-for-life, or "o le Ao o le Malo" is Malietoa Tanumafili II, a member of one of the three princely families. More recently, high-end hobby systems using "Digital Proportional" features have come on the market that provide a computerized digital bit-stream signal to the receiving device, instead of analog type pulse modulation. Samoa is often disputably described as a monarchy.

The relative simplicity of this system allows receivers to be small and light, and has been widely used since the early 1970s. The last co-principality, Andorra, has two co-princes: the Bishop of Urgell in Spain (thus a Prince-Bishop), and the President of France—a unique case where an independent country's Monarch is democratically elected by the citizens of another country, which is not even in full personal union. The pulse trains representing the whole set of channels is easily decoded into separate channels at the receiver using very simple circuits such as a Johnson counter. Several popes have been succeeded by near relatives, in some cases by their own sons (officially described as nephews). The latter produces a voltage proportional to the output position which is then compared with the position commanded by the input pulse and the motor is driven until a match is obtained. (Since the Catholic episcopate is celibate, naturally there can be no official hereditary succession to the papal throne.) Notwithstanding this the papacy has often been under the control of powerful Italian families. An electric motor and reduction gearbox is used to drive the output arm and a variable resistor or "potentiometer". He is elected by (and customarily from among) the College of Cardinals.

Off-the-shelf servos respond directly to pulse trains of this type using integrated decoder circuits, and in response they actuate a rotating arm or lever on the top of the servo. In addition to his spiritual role as Supreme Pontiff, the Pope is the absolute Monarch of the Vatican City. The pulse is repeated in a frame of between 14 and 20 milliseconds in length. Another unique situation is Malaysia, in which the federal king, called the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or Paramount Ruler, is elected for a five year term from and by the nine sultans who are the hereditary rulers of the States of the Malay peninsula. In the type of system most commonly used today PWM is used, where transmitter controls change the width (duration) of the pulse for that channel between 920 µs and 2120 µs, 1520 µs being the center (neutral) position. Sometimes, component members of federal states are monarchies, even though the federal state as a whole is not; for example each of the emirates that form the United Arab Emirates has its own monarch (an emir). These R/C systems made 'proportional control' possible, where the position of the control surface in the model is proportional to the position of the control stick on the transmitter. See also abolished monarchies for a list of recently abolished monarchies.

Typical radio control systems for radio-controlled models employ pulse width modulation (PWM) or pulse position modulation (PPM), and actuate the various control surfaces using servomechanisms. A person who claims to be the legitimate heir to a deposed (or is in the royalist view suspended) monarchy is called a pretender. While early control systems might have two or three channels using amplitude modulation, modern systems include 20 or more using frequency modulation. Countries may regard themselves as monarchies without a named monarch, as Spain did from 1947 to 1975, and Hungary from 1920 to 1944. The mechanical resonant systems using reed relays were replaced by similar electronic ones, and the continual miniaturization of electronics allowed more signals, referred to as control channels, to be packed into the same package. In some cases, as with England and Spain, the monarchy has been overthrown and then restored. These systems were widely used until the 1960s, when the increasing use of solid state systems greatly simplified radio control. There may be a revolution in which the monarchy is overthrown; or, as in Italy, there may be a referendum in which the electorate decides to form a republic.

These were typical on/off signals. Monarchies can come to an end in several ways. The controller's radiotransmitter would play the different frequencies in response to the movements of a control stick. See family dictatorship. The vibration would push on electrical contacts connected to the actuators of the control surfaces of the missile. Some autocratic states can appear to have introduced inheritance for the head of state without declaring themselves to be monarchies, such as Syria and North Korea. In front of the speaker were a number of small metal "fingers" with different resonant frequencies, each one tuned to vibrate when a particular tone was played in the speaker (a so called reed relay). This has been challenged as violating EU rules that prohibit religious disqualification for positions of state authority.

A small radio receiver was placed in the missile, the signal from the controller (transmitter) was "played" into a small speaker. Currently, there is some controversy over the succession laws of some monarchies in the European Union (EU), such as that of the United Kingdom (UK) or the Scandinavian monarchies, which require their Monarch to be of a certain faith (in the UK under the Act of Settlement 1701). Radio control systems of this era were generally mechanical in nature. In earlier times, the succession was often unclear and this led to a number of wars. However none of these systems proved usable in practice, and the one major US effort, Project Aphrodite, proved to be far more dangerous to its users than to the target. The order of succession in most European monarchical states of the 21st century is by primogeniture, meaning the eldest son of the monarch is first in line, followed by his male, then female siblings in order of age. Both the British and US also developed radio control systems for similar tasks, in order to avoid the huge anti-aircraft batteries set up around German targets. In some cases the ruling family may claim to hold authority by virtue of God's choosing, as reflected in the stle-phrase by the Grace of God, or other religion-based authority.

The German development teams then turned to wire guidance once they realized what was going on, but these systems were not ready for deployment until the war had already moved to France. In the hereditary system, the position of Monarch involves inheritance according to an order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin back to a historical dynasty or bloodline. Jammers were then installed on British ships, and the weapons basically "stopped working". Elective monarchies, distinguished by the Monarchs being appointed for life, have in most cases been succeeded by hereditary monarchies, but both secular sovereign nation cases at present are 20th century creations. After initial overwhelming successes, the British launched a number of commando raids to collect the missile radio sets. In constitutional monarchies the rule of succession is generally embodied in a law passed by a representative body, such as a parliament. The effectiveness of the Luftwaffe systems was greatly reduced by British efforts to jam their radio signals. The rules for selection of Monarchs varies from country to country.

However by the end of the war the Luftwaffe was having similar problems attacking allied bombers, and developed a number of radio-controlled anti-aircraft missiles, none of which saw service. In other cases, such as England and Scotland, a personal union was the precursor to a merger of the states. Their main effort was the development of radio-controlled missiles and glide bombs for use against shipping, a target that is otherwise both difficult and dangerous to attack. Several former colonies of the British Empire, such as Australia, Canada, Jamaica, and New Zealand, continue to recognize the British Monarch as their own, under a separate title for each country. Radio control was further developed during World War II, primarily by the Germans who used it in a number of missile projects. An empire was traditionally ruled by a monarchy whose leader may have been known by different titles in his different realms. Nikola Tesla patented a radio-control scheme as early as 1899, and various radio-controlled ships were used for naval artillery target practice by the 1920s. On several occasions throughout history, the same person has served as Monarch of separate independent states, in a situation known as a personal union.

The possibility of radio remote control was appreciated almost as soon as the first demonstrations of radio itself; the credit for the first to suggest radio control of aircraft may belong to Patrick Young Alexander as early as 1888. The most famous example of this was general Napoleon Bonaparte who created himself Emperor of France (formerly a kingdom) after legally assuming political control of the French Republic as First Consul for life; a blatant imitation of his empire was that of Bokassa I in the very poor Central African Empire. . There have also been situations in which a dictator proclaimed himself Monarch of a previous republic, thus starting a self-proclaimed monarchy with no historical ties to a previous dynasty. The term is used frequently to refer to the control of model cars, boats, airplanes, and helicopters from a user-held control box (radio.) Industrial, military and scientific research all make use of radio-controlled vehicles as well. Spain under Francisco Franco was officially a monarchy even though there was no monarch on the throne; upon his death, Franco was succeeded as head of state by King Juan Carlos. Radio control is the use of radio signals to remotely control another device. In Fascist Italy a monarchy coexisted with a fascist party for longer than such co-existences occurred in Romania, Hungary or Greece.

In some cases, a hereditary monarchy exists, but actual power resides in the military, as often has been the case in Thailand and Japan (see Shogun). Modern versions tend to survive only in societies with sufficient technology to allow the concentration and organization of power, but not to allow education and rapid communication The economic structure of such monarchies is often of concentrated wealth, with the majority of the population living either as agricultural serfs, or, as in Gulf Monarchies, a paternalistic model showering benefits on the citizens (while politically they may remain subjects) and importing cheap foreign labor. In an absolute monarchy, the Monarch has power over every aspect of the state, and a constitution may be granted or withdrawn, while in a constitutional monarchy he is subject to it as well as any citizen (though it may grant him such priviliges as inviolability). .

Nepal saw several contradictory trends related to the violent rebel movement and the killings by the suicidal crown prince. There are also recent (2003) developments in Liechtenstein, wherein the regnant prince was given the Constitutional power to dismiss the government at will. In Jordan and Morocco, the Monarch retains considerable power. Among the few states that have absolute monarchies are Swaziland, Brunei, Bhutan, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait.

In England, this process began with the Magna Carta of 1215, although it did not reach democratic proportions until after the Glorious Revolution in 1689. Democratic countries which retain monarchy have by definition limited the monarch's power, with most having become constitutional monarchies. Since 1800, many of the world's monarchies have ceased to have a monarch and become republics, or become parliamentary democracies. Even where law is simply the monarch's will, the king must rule by custom.

Other Monarchs derived their power by acclamation of the ruling or of the warrior caste of a clan or group of clans: Kings of the Franks, Roman emperors. The Monarch often ruled at the pleasure of the deity and was overthrown or sacrificed when it became apparent that supernatural sanction had been withdrawn: emperor of China, Mayan kings, Achaemenid King of Kings of Persia. Many monarchies began with the Monarch as the local representative and temporary embodiment of the deity: (King of Babylon). Monarchies are one of the oldest forms of government, with echoes in the leadership of tribal chiefs.

In some cases, the symbolism of monarchy alongside the symbolism of democracy can lead to division over the apparently contradictory principles. Many states have a strong convention against the monarch becoming involved in partisan politics (the Central African Empire was an exception). In most countries with monarchies, the monarch serves as a symbol of continuity and statehood. establishment, or to the realm or other state over which the monarchy reigns.

The term monarchy is also used to refer to the people (especially the dynasty, also known as 'royalty') and institutions that make up the royal/imperial.. There are currently 29 extant monarchies in the world. The distinguishing characteristic of monarchy is that the Head of State holds their office for life, unlike in a republic, where a president is normally elected for a certain amount of time. A monarchy, (from the Greek monos, "one," and archein, "to rule") is a form of government that has a monarch as Head of State.