Perfume

As a result, the deer is now protected by law and international trade of musk from Moschus moschiferus is prohibited:. However, fakes and reproductions have also been made at many times during the long history of Chinese ceramics and continue to be made today in ever-increasing numbers. Due to the high demand of musk and indiscriminate hunting, populations were severely depleted. Whilst ceramics with features thus borrowed might sometimes pose problems of provenance, they would not generally be regarded as either reproductions or fakes. Although the musk pod is produced only by a young male deer in oestrus musk hunters usually did not discriminate between the age and sex of the deers. Chinese potters have a long tradition of borrowing design and decorative features from earlier wares. This requires the killing of the animal in the process. The piece would have been fired in a saggar (a lidded ceramic box intended to protect the piece from kiln debris, smoke and cinders during firing) in a reducing atmosphere in a wood-burning egg-shaped kiln, at a temperature approaching 1350 degrees Celsius.

Musk was traditionally taken from the male musk deer Moschus moschiferus. The potting is good and the porcelain body is finely textured, indicating the presence of a significant proportion of China clay in the paste. There are several reasons for this:. The decoration, a sage in a landscape of lakes and mountains with blazed rocks is typical of the period. It is important to note that there is no benefit from creating a perfume exclusively from natural materials. The translucent body showing through the clear glaze is of great whiteness and the cobalt decoration, applied in many layers, is of a fine blue hue. For instance, acetophenone, limonene, oakmoss etc while present in many perfumes, are also potential allergens. The tea caddy illustrated shows many of the characteristics of blue and white porcelain produced during the Kangxi period.

In some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause allergic reactions of the skin. Starting early in the fourteenth century, blue and white wares rapidly became the main product of Jingdezhen, reaching the height of its technical excellence during the later years of the reign of the Kangxi emperor and continuing in present times to be an important product of the city. Perfumers were also known to create poisons; for instance, a French duchess was murdered when a perfume/poison was rubbed into her gloves and was, thus, slowly absorbed into her skin. It is of interest to note that a Yuan funerary urn decorated with underglaze blue and underglaze red and dated 1338 is still in the Chinese taste, even though by this time the large-scale production of blue and white porcelain in the Yuan, Mongol, taste had started at Jingdezhen. Today, perfume creation is dominated by a handful of very large multi national companies - IFF (USA), Givaudan (Switzerland), Firmenich (Switzerland), Takasago (Japan) and Quest (UK). In 1975 shards decorated with underglaze blue were excavated at a kiln site in Jiangxi and, in the same year, an underglaze blue and white urn was excavated from a tomb dated to the year 1319, in the province of Jiangsu. By the 18th century, aromatic plants were being grown in the Grasse region of France to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. In 1970 a small fragment of a blue and white bowl, also dated to the eleventh century, was also excavated in the province of Zhejiang.

Partly due to this patronage, the western perfumery industry was created. In 1957 excavations at the site of a pagoda in the province Zhejiang uncovered a Northern Song bowl decorated with underglaze blue and further fragments have since been discovered at the same site. The Prophet Muhammad said, "The taking of a bath on Friday is compulsory for every male Muslim who has attained the age of puberty and (also) the cleaning of his teeth with Siwak (type of twig used as a toothbrush), and the using of perfume if it is available." (Recorded in Sahih Bukhari). It has been suggested that the shards originated from a kiln in the province of Henan. In the Islamic culture, perfume usage has been documented as far back as the 6th century and its usage is considered a religious duty. No complete piece of Tang blue and white is known to exist, but shards dating to the eighth or ninth century have been unearthed at Yangzhou in Jiangsu province. During the Renaissance period, perfumes were used primarily by royalty and the wealthy to mask bodily odors resulting from the sanitary practices of the day. It is believed that underglaze blue and white porcelain was first made in the Tang Dynasty.

Knowledge of perfumery came to Europe as early as the 14th century. After the decoration has been applied the pieces are glazed and fired. The world centre of perfumery has moved over the centuries depending upon who has had the economic and political power. The blue decoration is painted onto the body of the porcelain before glazing, using very finely ground cobalt oxide mixed with water. It was developed and further refined by the Romans and the Arabs. Following in the tradition of earlier qingbai porcelains, blue and white wares are glazed using a transparent porcelain glaze. In ancient Egypt a great deal was recorded and we have a relativley clear account of the considerable importance of perfume in their daily lives. The rims of such wares were left unglazed but were often bound with bands of silver, copper or lead.

Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in china and India but little evidence remains. Though not the case with the bowl illustrated, many Song and Yuan qingbai bowls were fired upside down in special segmented saggars, a technique first developed at the Ding kilns in Hebei province. The mixture is normally aged for one year. The glaze and the body of the bowl would have been fired together, in a saggar, in a large, wood-burning dragon-kiln or climbing-kiln typical of southern kilns of the period. Included in the perfume are fixatives, which bind the various fragrances together, include balsams, ambergris, and secretions from the scent glands of civets and musk deer (undiluted, these have unpleasant smells but in alcoholic solution they act as preserving agents). The body is white, translucent and has the texture of very fine sugar, indicating that it was made using crushed and refined China stone, rather than a mixture of China stone and China clay. Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients. The bowl has incised decoration, probably representing clouds or the reflection of clouds in the water.

Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes. The Song dynasty qingbai bowl illustrated was probably made at the Jingdezhen village of Hutian, which was also the site of the Imperial kilns established in the year 1004. Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "essential oils", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract. Bowls, some with incised or moulded decoration and varying from the everyday to more finely made pieces represent the overwhelming bulk of surviving qingbai wares. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odour character or renders them odourless. When applied over a white porcelain body the glaze produces a greenish-blue colour that gives the glaze its name (qingbai in Chinese means greenish-blue). All these techniques will to a certain extent, distort the odour of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. The qingbai glaze is clear, but contains iron in small amounts.

The results of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. The qingbai glaze is a porcelain glaze, so-called because it was made using China stone, an important constituent of the porcelain body. Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. Qingbai wares were made at Jingdezhen and at many other southern kilns from the time of the Northern Song until their almost complete eclipse, starting early in the fourteenth century, by underglaze-decorated blue and white wares. Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified. One advantage gained by the addition in varying amounts of China clay was that the composition of the mix could be varied to suit the position that the wares made from it would occupy in the kiln, with a clay-rich mix being used for wares to be fired at the hot end of the kiln and a stone-rich mix being used for wares to be fired at the cooler end of the kiln. Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained. The temperatures within a typical large, southern egg-shaped kiln varied greatly, from hot, at the firebox end, to cooler, at the chimney end.

See Aroma compound. China clay when added to the body material produced a porcelain of great strength and whiteness (whiteness, in particular, was a much sought after property of porcelain, especially that used for blue and white wares). Each of these companies patent several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually. Porcelain bodies made from China stone fire at a lower temperature, in the region of 1200 degrees Celsius, than those made with a mixture of China clay and China stone, which require firing in the region of 1350 degrees Celsius. They include:. During the Song and Yuan dynasties porcelain was made at Jingdezhen and other kiln sites in southern China using crushed and refined China stone alone, but by the early eighteenth century China clay was being added to the China stone, in about equal proportions. The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. In northern China, high-fired, translucent porcelains were made at kilns in the provinces of Henan and Hebei.

Orchid scents are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids. These included the well-known Tang lead-glazed sancai (three-colour) wares, the high-firing, lime-glazed Yue celadon wares and low-fired wares from Changsha. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be cheaply synthesized from terpenes. During the Sui and Tang periods (581 to 906) a wide range of ceramics, low-fired and high-fired, were produced. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. However, Chinese experts emphasise the presence of a significant proportion of porcelain-building minerals (China clay, China stone or a combination of both) as an important factor in defining porcelain and shards recovered from Eastern Han kiln sites in Zhejiang, estimated to have been fired at a temperature of between 1260 to 1300 degrees Celsius, were found that met this condition. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. A strong body of Chinese scholarly opinion is currently of the view that the first true porcelain was made in the Chinese province of Zhejiang during the Eastern Han period, but this opinion is controversial.

Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. Claims have been made for the late Eastern Han period (100 to 200 AD) the Three Kingdoms period (220 to 280 AD) the Six Dynasties period (220 to 589 AD) and the Tang Dynasty (618 to 906 AD). Synthetic aromatics are created through organic synthesis from various chemical compounds that are obtained from petroleum distillates, pine resins, or other relatively cheap organic feedstock. This in turn has led to confusion about when the first Chinese porcelain was made. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petit grain, neroli, and orange oils. In the context of Chinese ceramics the term porcelain lacks a universally accepted definition. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. In 1743, during the reign of the Qianlong emperor, Tang Ying, the imperial supervisor at Jingdezhen produced a memoir entitled "Twenty illustrations of the manufacture of porcelain." Unfortunately, the original illustrations have been lost but the text of the memoir may be found here, together with photographs replacing the missing illustrations and an additional commentary.

The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. Père d'Entrecolles, explaining his motives for describing what he had seen at Jingdezhen, states that "Nothing but my curiosity could ever have prompted me to such researches, but it appears to me that a minute description of all that concerns this kind of work might, somehow, be useful in Europe" but in the event his first letter came too late to be of much help in the European search for the secret of making porcelain. Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. He then goes on to describe the refining of China clay, kaolin or Gaoling, the preparation of glazes, the stages of forming porcelain wares, glazing and firing. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores as well as to attract pollinators. In his first letter, dated 1712, d'Entrecolles describes the way in which China stone was crushed, refined and formed into little white bricks known in Chinese as petuntse or baidunzi. Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. Two letters written by Père Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles, a Jesuit missionary (and industrial spy) who lived and worked in Jingdezhen described in detail the methods and materials used in the manufacture of porcelain wares in the later years of the reign of the Kangxi emperor; an important period in the history of Chinese ceramics.

As such, although the oil concentration of a perfume in eau de parfum dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in eau de toilette form, the same trends may not necessarily apply to different perfume compositions much less across different perfume houses. Detailed descriptions of the manufacture of porcelain at Jingdezhen during the Qing dynasty exist, including, from the European perspective, the letters of Père d'Entrecolles and from the Chinese perspective, a memoir written by Tang Ying. It should be noted that different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. In the year 1004, under the Song emperor Jingde, the newly re-named city of Jingdezhen was established as a centre for the production of imperial porcelain. As the percentage of aromatic compounds decreases, the intensity and longevity of the scent decrease. The early wares were low-fired but by the time of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 to 589) locally available raw materials were being used to produce a form of porcelain. The percent of perfume oil by volume in a perfume is listed as follows:. The city of Jingdezhen has been an important centre for the production of ceramics in southern China since at least the early Han Dynasty.

Although dilutions of the perfume oil can be done using solvents such as jojoba, fractionated coconut oil, and wax, the most common solvents for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water. Chinese enamelled wares are also produced in this way, but the enamels are added after the first, high-temperature, firing and the pieces are sent for a second firing in a smaller, lower-temperature kiln. This is done because undiluted oils contain volatile components that would be too concentrated for people with sensitive skin or allergies. In the high temperature of the kiln the body and the glaze are fused together to become one unit. Perfumes oils, or the "juice" of a perfume composition, are diluted with a suitable solvent to make the perfume more usable. After the body of a piece is formed and finished it is air-dried, coated with a glaze, dried again and fired. The rate of evaporation (vapor pressure) and the odor strength of the compound partly determine the tenacity of the compound and determine its perfume note classification. An unusual characteristic of Chinese porcelain is that in the main it is green-fired or once-fired, which is to say that the body and the glaze are fired together.

On application, body heat causes the solvent to quickly disperse, leaving the fragrance to evaporate gradually over several hours. One result of this is that the property of resonance carries greater weight than that of translucence in the Chinese classification of high-fired ceramic wares. A mixture of alcohol and water is used as the solvent for the aromatics. This can lead to confusion because, for example, in China no distinction is drawn between high-fired stonewares and porcelain. Traditionally, fragrances can be classified into several olfactive families, by the themes, or accords, of these fragrances. The Chinese tradition recognises only two primary categories of ceramic, high-fired (ci) and low-fired (tao). Perfumes can also be classified according to their concentration. In the Western tradition ceramics are primarily divided into the categories of earthenware, stoneware or porcelain, depending upon the composition of the body material and the temperature at which the ware matures into a stable crystaline matrix.

On the other hand, it is possible to group perfumes into olfactive families and describe them through the notes that appear as they slowly evaporate. In turn, this led to the development of coal-fuelled kilns suitable for the high-temperature firing of clay-rich wares in the north and wood-fuelled kilns more suitable for the lower-temperature firing of the stone-rich southern wares. Even if the formulas are known, the ingredients are often too numerous to provide a useful classification. Geological differences between the northern and the southern land masses have influenced the nature of the ceramic wares made in the two areas and, for example, in the north ceramic wares tend to have bodies made using mainly China clay, in the south ceramic wares tend to have bodies made using mainly China stone. It is impossible to describe a perfume according to its components because the exact formulas are kept secret. The two land masses were brought together by the action of continental drift, forming a junction that lies very approximately along the line of the present-day Yangtze river. . Present day China comprises two separate, and from the geological point of view, distinctly different, land masses: the northern and the southern.

The amount and type of solvent mix with the fragrance oil dictates whether a perfume is considered a perfume extract, Eau de parfum, Eau de toilette, or Eau de Cologne. Chinese ceramic wares are often classified as being either northern or southern. Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a lasting and pleasant smell. In the case of throwing, compression is applied by the hand of the potter. Miss Piggy: Moi. This is of importance because most of the methods used for forming the body parts of ceramic pieces (throwing on a wheel, for example) depend upon the application of compression to align the platelets and increase the plasticity and workability of the clay mixture. Elizabeth Taylor: Passion, White Diamonds. China stone and China clay are both platy minerals, which is to say that they are composed to varying degrees of small platelets of high surface area (external and internal) and are capable of holding relatively large amounts of water.

Britney Spears: Curious, Fantasy. China stone also occurs kaolinised to a greater or lesser extent. Sarah Jessica Parker: Lovely. China clay largely comprises the clay mineral kaolinite (Gaoling) and China stone, petunse (baidunzi) is a micaceous rock of variable composition whose componants include quartz and sericite. Jennifer Lopez: JLo, Still, Live, Glow, Miami Glow. Both minerals derive from the weathering and decomposition of granitic rocks. Beyoncé Knowles: True Star, True Star Gold. Chinese porcelain is made using China stone, China clay or a combination of the two materials.

Paris Hilton: Paris Hilton, Paris Hilton for Men, Just Me, Just Me for Men. Firing. Firing is the operation of heating green (unfired) ceramic wares at high-temperatures in a kiln to make permanent their shapes. Alan Cumming: Cumming. Wares glazed in this way are described as being green-fired or once-fired. Cher: Uninhibited. In an alternative method of glazing particularly associated with Chinese and early European porcelains the glaze was applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation. David Beckham: Instinct. In common with many earlier wares, modern porcelain wares are often bisque-fired at around 1000 degrees Celsius, coated with glaze and then sent for a second glaze-firing at a temperature of about 1300 degrees Celsius, or greater.

Many synthetics have very beautiful aromas not available in nature. Decoration. Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze, using pigments that include cobalt and copper, or over the glaze using coloured enamels. There are many new synthetic aromas that bear no olfactory relationship to any natural material and yet modern perfumery depends on these new odours for the infinite variety of perfumes available today. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the celadon wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Unless the essential oil is distilled from a certified organic origin. Unlike their lower-fired counterparts, porcelain wares do not need glazing to render them impermeable to liquids and for the most part are glazed for decorative purposes and to make them resistant to dirt and staining. In the distillation of natural essential oils any biocides (including pesticides, herbicides, or fungicides) that have been applied while the plant is growing may be concentrated into the essential oil making the oil toxic. Glazing. It generally supposed that the first glazes to appear on ceramic wares resulted from the unavoidable presence in the kiln of lime-rich wood ash, which acted on the surface of the wares as a flux.

Synthetic aromatics make possible perfumes at reasonable prices. However, the lesson should be well-learned; potters work within constraints set by the materials and methods that they use and these constraints cannot be overcome by the application of unfocused brute force. Perfume composed only of natural materials is more expensive. The sight of a novice potter wrestling with an eccentric mass of rotating clay in an attempt to save both pot and face can produce mixed emotions in the minds of more experienced onlookers. Many natural materials and essential oils contain the same chemicals used in perfumes that are classified as allergens, many of them at higher concentrations. To the casual observer, throwing carried out by an expert potter appears to be a graceful and almost effortless activity, but this masks the fact that a rotating mass of clay possesses energy and momentum in an abundance that will, given the slightest mishandling, have a rapid and dramatic effect on the piece being thrown. These naturals have been replaced by safer synthetic materials. However, the fast-wheel also brought with it significant problems and made new demands on the skills of the potter.

Many natural aromatic materials are in fact inherently toxic and are either banned or restricted by IFRA. The introduction of the fast-wheel brought benefits in the form of speed and a job that might have taken hours, or even days, to complete was reduced to one that could be done in minutes. Tinctures are typically thin liquids. Unlike hand-building, in wheel-throwing the bulk of the energy used does not come directly from the hands of the potter. Tincture: Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in ethanol. The wheel was wound-up and charged with energy by pushing it round with a stick, an arrangement that permitted the energy stored in the wheel to be finely directed to where it was required, at the point where the hands of the potter come into contact with the clay. Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid. This changed with the introduction of the fast-wheel, early forms of which utilised energy stored in the rotating mass of the heavy stone wheel itself.

Pommade: A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the enfleurage process, in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats. In the coiling method of construction, all of the energy required to form the body of a piece is supplied directly by the hands of the potter. Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called expression oils. The earliest ceramics were hand-built using a simple coiling technique in which clay was rolled into long threads that were then pinched and beaten together to form the body of a vessel. Essential oil: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through distillation or expression and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. The process of throwing is in fact one of remarkable complexity. Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids. To the spectator, throwing is often seen as pulling clay upwards and outwards into a required shape and potters often speak of pulling when forming a piece on a wheel, but the term is misleading, clay in a plastic condition cannot be pulled without breaking.

As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. The relatively low plasticity of the clays used for making porcelain can cause difficulties for the potter, particularly in the case of wheel-thrown wares. Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various hydrophobic compounds. Sometimes a combination of these methods is used and, for example, it would not be uncommon for a piece to have a thrown body, moulded handles and slip-cast decoration, the parts being luted together before firing (lute is a thick liquid mixture of clay and water used to join unfired parts together). Concrete: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through solvent extraction using volatile hydrocarbons. Forming. Porcelain wares are formed by hand-building, moulding, pressing, slip-casting or by throwing on a potter's wheel. Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily liquid. The Wikipedia article on Pottery provides much useful background information on methods used for forming, decorating, finishing, glazing and firing ceramic wares.

By using a slightly hydrophilic compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy molecules. The porcelain clay body, unfired or fired, is sometimes spoken of as the paste and porcelain clay is itself sometimes described as the body (for example, when buying materials a potter might order such an amount of porcelain body from a vendor). Absolute: Fragrant materials that are purified from a pommade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol. Reference should be made to the Wikipedia article on Pottery for an explanation of some of these terms, but it might be helpful to note that the material used to form the body of porcelain wares is often referred to as clay, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of its whole. This technique is not commonly used in the present day industry due to its prohibitive cost and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods. When referring to the materials that they use, potters often employ words and names in a way that can be confusing for the layman. Extraction by enfleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible due to the fact that some fragrant compounds denature through high heat. Some clays used for making ceramic wares are too cohesive to be thrown on the wheel, including for example, the brown clays used to form the bodies of the red stonewares of Yixing in the Chinese province of Jiangsu and as a result of this Yixing-wares are almost always hand-built.

Enfleurage: Absorption of aroma materials into wax and then extracting the odorous oil with alcohol. Thus, the range of water contents within which porcelain clays can be worked is very narrow and the loss or gain of water during storage and throwing or forming must be carefully controlled to keep the clay from becoming too wet or too dry to manipulate. Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible. Porcelain clays are of lower plasticity (shorter) than many other clays used for making pottery and wet very quickly, which is to say that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Expression: Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected. In soil mechanics plasticity is determined by measuring the increase in content of water required to change a clay from a solid state bordering on the plastic, to a plastic state bordering on the liquid, though the term is also used less formally to describe the facility with which a clay may be worked. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odour is desired. Long clays are cohesive (sticky) and of high plasticity and short clays are less cohesive and are of lower plasticity.

Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. The clays used by potters are often described as being long or short according to plasticity. Dry/destructive distillation: The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Other materials mixed with China clay to make porcelain clay have included ball-clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse and alabaster. This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems. The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but China clay, comprising mainly or in part the platey clay mineral kaolinite is often a significant component. The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes sold. However, ceramics have an existance that is entirely independent of the words used to classify them and in this article the term porcelain is taken to encompass a broad range of high-fired ceramic wares, including some that might according to some systems of classification fall into the category of stoneware.

This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water. Where this line is drawn depends upon how the terms porcelain and stoneware are defined and this puzzle has been and continues to be the subject of controversy. The condensate from distillation are settled in a Florentine flask. Another difficult line to draw is that which divides high-fired stonewares from porcelain. Steam distillation: Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds. Industrial and other uses are (or, it is hoped, will be) covered elsewhere in the encyclopedia. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapour.