Lead

Rather, plum is derived from the Old English word plume. Poland has also had a strong influence on the countries surrounding it. The plum, however, does not get its name from this root. Today, we can see these influences in Polish architecture, folklore and art. The Latin plumbum has given birth to a number of terms in the English language:. Polish culture has a rich thousand-year history influenced from both west and east. The earliest pencils actually used lead, though 'pencil leads' have been made for the last couple of centuries from graphite, a naturally occurring form (allotrope) of carbon. [6].

For that reason many universities do not hand out lead-containing samples to women for instructional laboratory analyses. The rest of the population consists mainly of Eastern Orthodox (about 509 500), Jehovah's Witnesses (about 123 034) and various Protestant (about 86 880 in the largest Evangelical-Augsburg Church and about as many in smaller churches) religious minorities. Lead is considered to be particularly harmful for women's ability to reproduce. Most Poles adhere to the Roman Catholic faith and 95% count as practising Catholics. It has been suggested that what was known as "Devon colic" arose from the use of lead-lined presses to extract apple juice in the manufacture of cider. The Polish language, a member of the West Slavic branch of the Slavic languages, functions as the official language of Poland. Lead salts used in pottery glazes have on occasion caused poisoning, when acid drinks, such as fruit juices, have leached lead ions out of the glaze. The officially recognised ethnic minorities include: Germans, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Jews and Belarusians.

Paint containing lead has been withdrawn from sale in industralised countries, though many older houses may still contain substantial lead in their old paint: it is generally recommended that old paint should not be stripped by sanding, as this generates inhalable dust. 774,900 people (2.03%) didn't declare any nationality. The concern about lead's role in mental retardation in children has brought about widespread reduction in its use (lead exposure has been linked to schizophrenia). Today 36,983,700 people, or 96.74% of the population considers itself Polish (Census 2002), 471,500 (1.23%) declared another nationality. Main article: lead poisoning. However, the outcome of World War II and the following shift westwards to the area between the Curzon line and the Oder-Neisse line gave Poland an appearance of homogeneity. Although this has been banned in industrialized nations, there was a recent scandal involving lead-laced Mexican candy being eaten by children in California (http://www.ocregister.com/investigations/2004/lead/part1_printable.html). Poland formerly played host to many languages, cultures, and religions.

At one point in time, some lead compounds, because of their sweetness, were used by candy makers. Nevertheless, despite high expenditures for telecom infrastructure (the coverage increased from 78 users per 1000 inhabitants in 1989 to 282 in 2000)
the coverage mobile cellular is 660 users per 1000 people (2005). The historical use of lead acetate (also known as sugar of lead) by the Roman Empire as a sweetener for wine is considered by some to be the cause of the dementia which affected many of the Roman Emperors. The share of the telecom sector in the GDP is 4.4% (end of 2000 figure), compared to 2.5% in 1996. Long term exposure to lead or its salts (especially soluble salts or the strong oxidant PbO₂) can cause nephropathy, and colic-like abdominal pains. In total, there are around 91,000 scientists in Poland today. Lead is a poisonous metal that can damage nervous connections (especially in young children) and cause blood and brain disorders. There are also around 300 research and development institutes, with about 10,000 more researchers.

The ranges of isotopic ratios for most natural materials are 14.0 - 30.0 for ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 15.0 - 17.0 for ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, and 35.0 - 50.0 for ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, although numerous examples outside these ranges are reported in the literature. Today, Poland has more than a hundred tertiary education instutions; traditional universities to be found in its major cities of Gdańsk, Bydgoszcz, Katowice, Kraków, Lublin, Łódź, Poznań, Rzeszów, Warsaw and Wrocław as well as technical, medical, economic institutions elsewhere, employing around 61,000 workers. Each is reported relative to ²⁰⁴Pb, the only non-radiogenic stable isotope. In 1773 King Stanisław August Poniatowski established his Commission on National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), the world's first state ministry of education. The corresponding half-lives of these decay schemes vary markedly: 4.47 × 10⁹, 7.04 × 10⁸ and 1.4 × 10¹⁰ years, respectively. In 1364, in Kraków, the Jagiellonian University, founded by King Kazimierz Wielki, became one of Europe's great early universities. ²⁰⁶Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb and ²⁰⁸Pb are all radiogenic, and are the end products of complex decay chains that begin at ²³⁸U, ²³⁵U and ²³²Th, respectively. The library catalog of the Cathedral Chapter of Kraków dating back to 1110 shows that already in the early 12th century Polish intellectuals had access to the European literature.

Lead has four stable, naturally occurring isotopes: ²⁰⁴Pb (1.4%), ²⁰⁶Pb (24.1%), ²⁰⁷Pb (22.1%), and ²⁰⁸Pb (52.4%). The education of Polish society was a goal of rulers as early as the 12th century. Main Article: Isotopes of lead. Poland produces: clothes, electronics, cars (including luxury car Leopard), buses (Autosan, Jelcz SA, Solaris, Solbus) helicopters (PZL Świdnik), planes (PZL Mielec), ships, military engineering (including tanks), medicines (Polpharma, Polfa, etc), food, chemical products etc. The molten lead bullion is then refined by additional smelting with air being passed over the lead to form a slag layer containing any remaining impurities and producing 99.9% pure lead. Since joining the European Union, many young Polish people have left their country to work in other EU countries because of high unemployment rate (about 17%). The lead is then cooled in stages which causes the lighter impurites (dross) to rise to the surface where they can be removed. For now, Poland is preparing to make the Euro its official currency (as other countries of the European Union), and the Złoty will eventually be abolished from the modern Polish economy.

The concentrate is sintered before being smelted in to produce a 97% lead concentrate. There is much speculation as to just when Poland might be ready to join the Eurozone, although the best guess estimates put the entry date somewhere between 2009 and 2013. The concentrate, which can range from 50% to 60% lead, is dried and then treated using pyrometallurgy. The most notable task on the horizon is the preparation of the economy (through continuing deep structural reforms) to allow Poland to meet the strict economic criteria for entry into the European Single Currency. The Froth flotation process separates the lead and other minerals from the waste rock (tailings) to form a concentrate. Although the Polish economy is currently undergoing an economic boom there are many challenges ahead. The ore is then treated using extractive metallurgy. Annual growth rates broken down by quarters:.

In mining, the ore is extracted by drilling or blasting and then crushed and ground. Forecasted GDP for 2006 is 4.3%. But more than half of the lead used currently comes from recycling. In 2004 GDP growth equalled 5.4%, and in 2005 3.3%. Other common varieties are cerussite (PbCO₃) and anglesite (PbSO₄). The prospect of closer integration with the European Union has put the economy back on track, with growth of 3.7% annually in 2003, a rise from 1.4% annually in 2002. The main lead mineral is galena (PbS), which contains 86.6% lead. GDP growth had been strong and steady from 1993 to 2000 with only a short slowdown from 2001 to 2002.

Currently lead is usually found in ore with zinc, silver and (most abundantly) copper, and is extracted together with these metals. Warsaw leads Central Europe in foreign investment and allegedly needs a continued large inflow. Native lead does occur in nature, but it is rare. Structural reforms in health care, education, the pension system, and state administration have resulted in larger-than-expected fiscal pressures. Recently, lead use is being further curtailed by the RoHS directive. Challenges remain, especially under-investment. lead consumers' compliance with environmental regulations that significantly reduced or eliminated the use of lead in nonbattery products, including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems. Poland has a large agricultural sector of private farms, that could be a leading producer of food in the European Union now that Poland is a member.

Much of this shift was a result of the U.S. The biggest privatisations so far were a sale of Telekomunikacja Polska, a national telecom to France Telecom (2000) and an issue of 30% shares of the biggest Polish bank, PKO BP, on the Polish stockmarket (2004). By the mid-1980s, a significant shift in lead end-use patterns had taken place. Restructuring and privatisation of "sensitive sectors" (e.g., coal, steel, railways, and energy) has begun. The English word "plumbing" also derives from this Latin root. The privatisation of small and medium state-owned companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms have allowed for the rapid development of an aggressive private sector, followed by a development of consumer rights organisations later on. Lead's symbol Pb is an abbreviation of its Latin name plumbum. Since its return to democracy, Poland has steadfastly pursued a policy of liberalising the economy and today stands out as one of the most successful and open examples of the transition from a partially state-capitalist market economy to a primarily privately owned market economy.

Lead pipes that bear the insignia of Roman emperors are still in service and many Roman "pigs" (ingots) of lead figure in Derbyshire lead mining history and in the history of the industry in other English centres. Lower levels of administrative division are:. Alchemists thought that lead was the oldest metal and associated it with the planet Saturn. Poland is subdivided into sixteen administrative regions known as voivodships (województwa, singular - województwo):. Lead was mentioned in the Book of Exodus. Poland enjoys a temperate climate, with cold, cloudy, moderately severe winters and mild summers with frequent showers and thunderstorms. In the early bronze age lead was used with antimony and arsenic. Remains of the ancient forests survive: see list of forests in Poland.

Lead has been used by humans for at least 7000 years, because it was (and continues to be) widespread and easy to extract, as well as easy to work with, being both highly malleable and ductile as well as easy to smelt. Masuria (Mazury) forms the largest and most-visited lake district in Poland. Lead is the only metal in which there is zero Thomson effect. Poland also contains over 9,300 lakes, predominantly in the north of the country. Lead can be toughened by adding a small amount of antimony or other metals to it. Several large rivers cross the plains; for instance, the Vistula (Wisła), Oder (Odra), Warta the (Western) Bug. sulfuric acid). The Polish landscape consists almost entirely of the lowlands of the North European Plain, at an average height of 173 metres (568 ft), though the Sudetes (including the Karkonosze) and the Carpathian Mountains (including the Tatra mountains, where one also finds Poland's highest point, Rysy, at 2,499 m or 8,199 ft) form the southern border.

Because of this property, it is used to contain corrosive liquids (e.g. The Ombudsman has the duty of guarding the observance and implementation of the rights and liberties of the human being and of the citizen, the law and principles of community life and social justice. This true metal is highly resistant to corrosion. The Sejm (on approval of the Polish Senate) appoints the Ombudsman or the Commissioner for Civil Rights Protection (Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich) for a five-year term. Lead has a bright luster and is a dense, ductile, very soft, highly malleable, bluish-white metal that has poor electrical conductivity. Its major institutions include the Supreme Court (Sąd Najwyższy), the Supreme Administrative Court (Naczelny Sąd Administracyjny) (judges appointed by the president of the republic on the recommendation of the National Council of the Judiciary for an indefinite period), the Constitutional Tribunal (Trybunał Konstytucyjny) (judges chosen by the Sejm for nine-year terms) and the Tribunal of State (Trybunał Stanu) (judges chosen by the Sejm for for the current term of office of the Sejm, except for the position of chairperson which is held by the First President of the Supreme Court). . The judicial branch plays a minor role in decision-making.

(But see the article on Bismuth, which has a half life so long it can be considered stable.). Only the first kind has occurred to date. Lead has the highest atomic number of all stable elements. The National Assembly is formed on three occasions: Taking the oath of office by a new president, bringing an indictment against the President of the Republic to the Tribunal of State, and declaration of a President's permanent incapacity to exercise their duties due to the state of their health. Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shot, and is part of solder, pewter, and fusible alloys. When sitting in joint session, members of the Sejm and Senate form the National Assembly, (Polish Zgromadzenie Narodowe). A soft, heavy, toxic and malleable poor metal, lead is bluish white when freshly cut but tarnishes to dull gray when exposed to air. With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of political parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm.

plumbum) and atomic number 82. The Senate, on the other hand, is elected under a rare plurality bloc voting method where several candidates with the highest support are elected from each electorate. Lead is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Pb (L. The Sejm is elected under a proportional representation electoral system using the d'Hondt method similar to that used in many parliamentary political systems.
. Polish voters elect a two house parliament, consisting of a 460 member lower house Sejm and a 100 member Senate (Senat). Los Alamos National Laboratory - Lead. The current president is Lech Kaczyński.

A Small Dose of Toxicology:Lead. The president, elected by popular vote every five years, serves as the head of state. 41-52, 1968. The president appoints the cabinet according to the proposals of the prime minister, typically from the majority coalition in the bicameral legislature's lower house (the Sejm). 1., p. The government structure centres on the Council of Ministers, led by a prime minister. In: Curator, 11, No. Its current constitution dates from 1997.

Keisch, B: Discriminating Radioactivity Measurements of Lead: New Tool for Authentication. Poland is a democratic republic. 413-415, 1968. Poland joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. In: Science, 160, p. Polish voters then said yes to the EU in a referendum in June 2003. Keisch, B: Dating Works of Art Trough their Natural Radioactivity: Improvements and Applications. Poland joined the NATO alliance in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary.

1238-1242, 1967. Poland was the first post-communist country to regain pre-1989 GDP levels. 3767, p. Despite a temporary slump in social and economic standards, there were numerous improvements in other human rights (free speech, functioning democracy and the like). In: Science, 155, No. A shock therapy program during the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most robust in Central Europe. R.: Dating and Authenticating Works of Art by Measurement of Natural Alpha Emitters. The Solidarity movement greatly contributed to the soon-following collapse of Communism all over Eastern Europe.

S., and Edwards, R. It eroded the dominance of the Communist Party; by 1989 it had triumphed in parliamentary elections, and Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. L., Levine, A. Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union, "Solidarity", which over time became a political force. Keisch, B., Feller, R. It was a time when the economy was more modern, and the government had large credits. Aplomb comes from the French à plomb, meaning plumb vertical, and therefore confident and cool. In 1970 the government was changed.

Plumbism is the medical term for lead poisoning. In 1956 the régime became more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. sense of plum (derived from plumb) meaning 'completely'. The People's Republic of Poland (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in 1952. Plumb crazy may derive from the fact that lead poisoning can cause insanity; or, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, from a U.S. In 1948 a turn towards Stalinism brought in the beginning of the next period of totalitarian rule. Plumbing the depths derives from the use of the lead weight to draw the sounding line down to the bottom of the water body (or to the end of the line if the water's really deep!). Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War was also part of this change.

Plumb wall is so-said because a plumb bob is used to find the vertical. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. Plumb bob or plummet, a small, pointed body of metal the weight of which is used to draw a string vertical under tension, refers to the fact that they were originally made from lead. The largest number of ethnic Poles outside of the country can be found in the United States. Plumbing, or system of piping, derives from the fact that pipes were once made of lead. A Polish minority is still present in neighbouring countries of Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania, as well as in other countries (see Poles article for the population numbers). see isotope geochemistry. As a result of these events, Poland became, for the first time in history, an ethnically unified country.

See Category:Lead minerals. The shift forced the migration of millions of people – Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, Jews. Lead is used as electrodes in the process of electrolysis. After the shift, Poland emerged 20% smaller by 77,500 km² (29,900 mi²); although the important cities of Gdańsk (Danzig), Szczecin (Stettin) and Wrocław (Breslau) were all incorporated into its post-war borders. Tetraethyl lead has been used in leaded fuels to reduce engine knocking; however, this is no longer common practice in the Western World due to health concerns. On the other hand, the western border of Poland was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. It changes the optical characteristics of the glass and reduces the transmission of radiation. The second aggressor, the Soviet Union, was given the right to occupy former Polish territory in negotiations, which means that the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was partially confirmed.

Lead glass is comprised of 12-28% lead. At its conclusion, Poland's borders were shifted westwards, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line, even though the defense of Poland was the reason that France and the United Kingdom had declared war on Germany. for lead cooled fast reactors. Of all the countries involved in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: over 6 million perished, half of them Polish Jews. Molten lead is used as a coolant, eg. The eastern part of the German occupied zone was transformed into the General Government area, and the western part was just incorporated to German Reich. Lead is used as shielding from radiation. Warsaw surrendered on September 28, 1939.

[1]. The 1926 May Coup of Józef Piłsudski turned the Second Polish Republic into Sanacja that lasted until the start of World War II when Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland. Because of the dangers, European and North American manufacturers use more expensive alternatives such as zinc. It was established after a series of military conflicts, like the 1919-1921 Polish-Soviet War. Lead is used in some candles to treat the wick to ensure a longer, more even burn. Shortly after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic (II Rzeczpospolita Polska). Lead is used as projectiles for firearms and fishing sinkers because of its density, low cost verse alternative products and ease of use due to relatively low melting point. During World War I all the Allies agreed on the restitution of Poland that United States President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed in point 13 of his Fourteen Points.

Lead sticks were used as pencils but has been replaced by graphite for the last 450 years. Later in the 19th century, Austrian-ruled Galicia became the oasis of Polish freedom. Lead was used for plumbing in Ancient Rome and water mains and service pipes up until the early 1970's. However, the tsars soon reduced Polish freedoms and Russia eventually de facto annexed the country. Lead is used as a coloring element in ceramic glazes, notably in the colors red and yellow. The eastern part was ruled by the Russian tsar as a Congress Kingdom, and possessed a liberal constitution. Lead was used as a pigment in Lead paint for white as well as yellow and red colors. Napoleon recreated a Polish state, the Duchy of Warsaw, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was split again by the Allies at the Congress of Vienna.

Lead is a major constituent of the Lead-acid battery used extensively in car batteries. Poles resented their shrinking freedoms and several times rebelled against their oppressors (see List of Polish Uprisings). The process of reforms ceased with the partitions of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772, 1793 and 1795 which ultimately dissolved the country. The Enlightenment in Poland fostered a growing national movement to repair the state, resulting in what is claimed to be the first modern written constitution in Europe, the Constitution of May 3 in 1791. Russian tsars took advantage of this unique political vulnerability by offering money to Parliamentary traitors, who in turn would consistently and subversively block necessary reforms and new solutions.

In Polish Democracy every member of parliament was able to break any work or project by shouting 'Liberum Veto' during the session. During the following 80 years, the waning of the central government and deadlock of the institutions weakened the nation, leading to anarchistic tendencies and a growing dependency on Russia. Numerous wars against the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Cossacks, Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia ultimately came to an end in 1699. In the mid-17th century a Swedish invasion rolled through the country in the turbulent time known as "The Deluge" (potop).

Poles often call themselves the nation of the free people. Since that time Poles have regarded freedom as their most important value. Landowners gained almost unlimited ownership over serfs. The citizens of Poland took pride in their ancient freedoms and Sejm parliamentary system, although the szlachta monopolised most of the benefits as most of Poles since the middle of the fourteenth century were serfs.

A golden age occurred in the 16th century during its union (Lublin Union) with Lithuania in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Under the Jagiellon dynasty, Poland forged an alliance with its neighbour Lithuania. Teeple, ISBN 0-7894-8926-0 www.dk.com Dorling Kindersley). The only areas which escaped were Milan, Poland, Belgium, eastern Germany and part of southwest France." (Page 235 of "Timelines of World History" by John B.

Their fortress there had been besieged by Mongol invaders who had suddenly begun to die of a disease that caused black, blood-oozing swellings and immense pain....By 1351, it had spread over most of Europe. Luckily, the Black Death which affected most parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351 did not come to Poland: "One of the greatest calamities in European history began in 1347 when bubonic plague struck, brought to Italy, it is thought, by a group of Genoese returning home through Sicily and Pisa from Kaffa in the Crimea. His son Kazimierz Wielki repaired the Polish economy, built new castles and won the war against the Russian dukedom (Lwów became a Polish City). In 1320 Władysław I became the King of the reunified Poland.