Cannabis (drug)

This article is about cannabis used as a drug. For other uses, see cannabis.

Cannabis has been used for medical and psychoactive effects for thousands of years but became much more popular during the twentieth century. The use of cannabis as a recreational (or entheogenic) substance became illegal in most parts of the world during the early twentieth century, and remains that way today. For the physiology and science of the plant see Cannabis sativa. The most common strains used for psychoactive effect are actually members of a subspecies also known as Cannabis indica.

History

The use of cannabis, for food, fibers, and medicine, is thought to go back at least five millennia. Neolithic archaeological sites in China include cannabis seeds and plants. The first known mention of cannabis is in the Shen nung pen Ts'ao king, a Chinese medical text supposedly of 2737 BC, but probably considerably younger in reality. It was used as medicine throughout Asia and the Middle East to treat a variety of conditions. In India particularly, some sects of Hinduism associated cannabis with Shiva.

Cannabis was well known to the Scythians, as well as by the Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai - "those who walk on smoke/clouds") used to burn cannabis flowers in order to induce trances. The cult of Dionysus, which is believed to have been originated in Thrace, has also been linked to the effects of cannabis smoke.

The name cannabis is thought to be of Scythian origin. Possibly it has an earlier origin in Semitic languages like Hebrew, in Exodus 30:23 God commands Moses to make a holy anointing oil of myrrh, sweet cinnamon, kaneh bosm, and kassia. Kaneh bosm (Hebrew kannabos or kannabus) "kan" in means "reed" or "hemp", while "bosm" means "aromatic". In the Greek translations of the old testament "kan" was rendered as "reed", leading to English translations as "sweet calamus" (Exodus 30:23), sweet cane (Isaiah 43:24; Jeremiah 6:20) and "calamus" (Ezekiel 27:19; Song of Songs 4:14).

Sara Benetowa of the Institute of Anthropological Sciences in Warsaw is quoted in the Book of Grass as saying: "The astonishing resemblance between the Semitic 'kanbos' and the Scythian 'cannabis' leads me to suppose that the Scythian word was of Semitic origin. These etymological discussions run parallel to arguments drawn from history.

Germans grew hemp for its fibers to make nautical ropes and material for clothes since ancient times. Large fields of hemp along the banks of the Rhine are featured in 19th century copper etchings.

American pioneers depended on hemp for clothes, canvas, rope, oil, food, and many other things. The plant was so important that Thomas Jefferson, as governor of Virginia, required every farmer in the state to plant hemp for the good of the economy and citizens' survival. In 1791, the cotton gin was invented and cotton began to replace hemp for clothing in the U.S.

Under the name cannabis 19th century medical practitioners helped to introduce the herb's drug potential (usually as a tincture) to modern English-speaking consciousness. It was famously used to treat Queen Victoria's menstrual pains, and was available from shops in the US. By the end of the 19th century its medicinal use began to fall as other drugs such as aspirin took over.

The name marijuana is Mexican or Latin American in origin and associated almost exclusively with the herb’s drug potential. That marijuana is now well known in English as a name for drug material is due largely to the efforts of US drug prohibitionists during the 1920s and 30s.

Until 1937, consumption and sale of marijuana was legal in most American states. In some areas it could be openly purchased in bulk from grocers or in cigarette form at newsstands, though an increasing number of states had begun to outlaw it. In that year, federal law made possession or transfer of marijuana (without the purchase of a by-then incriminating tax stamp) illegal throughout the United States. This was contrary to the advice of the American Medical Association at the time. Legal opinions of time held that the federal government could not outlaw it entirely. The tax was $100 per pound of hemp, even for clothes or rope. The expense, extremely high for that time, was such that people stopped buying and making it.

The decision of the U.S. Congress was based in part on testimony derived from articles in the newspapers owned by William Randolph Hearst, who was heavily interested in DuPont Inc. Some analysts theorize DuPont wanted to boost declining post-war textile sales, and wished to eliminate hemp fiber as competition. Many argue that this seems unlikely given DuPont's lack of concern with the legal status of cotton, wool, and linen; although it should be noted that hemp's textile potential had not yet been largely exploited, while textile factories already had made large investments in equipment to handle cotton, wool, and linen. Others argue that Dupont wanted to eliminate cannabis because its high natural cellulose content made it a viable alternative to the company's developing innovation: modern plastic. Still, others could argue that hemp could never truly compete with the high strength and elasticity of synthetics, such as nylon. Furthermore, hemp would have been an easy target due to its intoxicating effect, while no rational justification could have been made for outlawing cotton, wool, or linen.

During this period, Henry (Harry) Anslinger alleged that the drug could provoke criminal behavior in previously solid citizens. Anslinger also popularized the word marihuana for the plant, using a Mexican derived word (believed to be derived from a Brazilian Portuguese term for inebriation) in order to associate the plant with increasing numbers of Mexican immigrants, creating a negative stereotype which persists to this day.

The 1937 federal marijuana tax act was struck down by the Supreme Court in 1969. In a case brought by Timothy Leary, the Court held that the law's requirement that a would-be possessor of marijuana register with the local bureau of the IRS, thereby placing his name and address on a file available to local law enforcment, violated the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination, given the fact that at the time all 50 states had state laws on the books outlawing marijuana outright. In 1970, the Controlled Substances Act made possession of marijuana illegal again on a federal level, without the constitutional issues that scuttled the 1937 act. Several petitions for cannabis rescheduling in the United States have been filed, since the Act permits legalization of marijuana through the executive branch.

Although cannabis has been used recreationally throughout its history, it first became well known in the United States during the jazz music scene of the late 1920s and 30s. Louis Armstrong became one of its most prominent and life-long devotees. Cannabis use was also a prominent part of 1960s counterculture.

Acute effects of human consumption

Acute effects of cannabis consumption vary according to the dose, the variety of the plant, the method of use, the individual, and the environment, but for the general population usually include some of the following:

Largely mental

• General change in consciousness
• Mild euphoria, feelings of general well-being
• Relaxation or stress reduction
• Increased appreciation of humor, music and other art
• Mental clarity
• Holistic attention, introspection
• Enhanced recollection of episodic memory
• Physical pleasure
• Increased sensuality
• Loss or increase of inhibition
• Increased awareness of sensation
• Creative or philosophical thinking
• Initial wakefulness followed by drowsiness and lassitude
• Increased consciousness of body and mind connection
• Disruption of linear memory
• Difficulty with working memory in some cases
• Slowness, caution (especially when driving automobiles)
• Paranoia, agitation, and anxiety
• Auditory and visual hallucinations (or entheogenic effects)
• Subjective potentiation of other drugs
• Increased awareness of patterns and color

Largely physical

• Pain relief (especially headaches and cramps).
• Increased appetite.
• Reduced nausea, especially from chemotherapy though can cause nausea in inexperienced users, and can exacerbate nausea (although a minority of users may experience an increase in nausea).
• Dilation of alveoli (air sacs) in lungs, resulting in:
  • Deeper breathing
  • No apparent Emphysema
• Dilation of blood vessels (vasodilation), resulting in:
  • Increased blood flow and heart rate
  • Reddening of the conjunctivae (red eye)
• Dry mouth (xerostomia)
• Headache, usually associated with poor quality, overly fresh material or too much consumption
• Aphrodisiacal qualities
• Dizziness, confusion
• Lower intra-ocular pressure (within the eyeball)
• Lower blood pressure while standing. Higher blood pressure while sitting
• Increased metabolism of glucose, reducing blood sugar levels
• Possible Carcinogenic/Anti-Carcinogenic effects (conflicting reports)

Effects

Of the approximately 400 different chemicals found in Cannabis, the main active ingredient is THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol). THC can degrade to CBL & CBN (other cannaboids), which can make one feel sleepy and disorientated. Different marijuana products have different ratios of these and other cannaboids. Depending on the ratio, the quality of the "high" will vary.

THC has an effect on the modulation of the immune system which may have an effect on malignant cells, but there is insufficient scientific study to determine whether this might promote or limit cancer. Cannabinoid receptors are also present in the human reproductive system, but there is insufficient scientific study to conclusively determine the effects of cannabis on reproduction. Mild allergies to cannabis may be possible in some members of the population.

Lethal dose

No fatal overdose due to cannabis use has ever been recorded in humans. According to the Merck Index, 12th edition, the LD50, the lethal dose for 50% of tested rats, was 42 milligrams per kilogram of body weight with forced inhalation. As for oral consumption, the LD50 for rats was 1270 mg/kg and 730 mg/kg for males and females, respectively. It would be impossible for THC in blood plasma to reach such a level in human cannabis smokers. Only with intravenous administration, a method rarely used by humans, may such a level be possible. Also, some evidence suggests that toxic levels may be higher for humans than for rats.

Long-term effects of human consumption

There is little conclusive scientific evidence about the long-term effects of human cannabis consumption. Many old studies which purported to demonstrate such effects were deeply flawed, with strong bias and poor methodology. The most significant confounding factor in determining long-term effects is the use of other drugs by test subjects in studies of cannabis use. When subjects who use only cannabis are combined in the same sample with subjects who use other drugs, an experiment could not conclude that its findings are indicative of an effect of the use of cannabis rather than an effect of the use of other drugs, or an effect of a complex combination of cannabis with other drugs.

Tolerance, withdrawal and dreams

Although use may become habitual, the extent of physical dependence to cannabis is unknown. (DEA, 2004) Yet, many animal and human studies conducted since the 1970s have revealed a cannabis withdrawal syndrome in some people after abstinence from heavy use which is usually characterized by several days of anxiousness, sleeplessness or more vivid, memorable dreams (REM rebound), irritability, and diminished appetite after cessation of use. However, because cannabis is a peculiar psychedelic that is unlike typical depressant or stimulant drugs, these persistent effects are unlike those normally associated with physical dependence. In particular, because THC has a very long half-life, working its way out of the body slowly over many days, it thereby obviates severe withdrawal effects seen in other substances.

Long-term effects on the mind and brain

In some people, cannabis use appears to cause significant medium-term decreases in cognitive performance, but performance on general intelligence and cognitive tests returns to "normal" in those people affected in this way within weeks of abstinence depending on the level of use. However, subtle impairment of complex cognitive function may persist even after long periods of abstinence in some of the users who suffered from decreased cognitive performance in the first place.

There is an increasing correlation in some people between cannabis use and psychosis, schizophrenia, and clinical depression, but there is no evidence that cannabis use causes these illnesses. Rather, cannabis may trigger latent conditions or be part of a complex coordination of causes, referred to as the diathesis-stress model in psychology. On the other hand, many people with pronounced psychological disorders, especially schizophrenia and depression, often self-medicate their illness with cannabis in place of potent main-stream drugs like antipsychotics, due to cannabis's relatively low side effects and calming physiological effects that alleviate symptoms. Though cannabis has been used for thousands of years, and has been increasingly popular in the west since the sixties it is only since the nineties that the link between cannabis and psychosis has been identified.

Some claim that extended use of cannabis may help a human reach a higher level of mental consciousness and clarity, expanding the mind and helping individuals become more aware, insightful and intelligent. It can be used to increase mental performance and concentration, and give insights into the nature of how things are. In Jamaica, cannabis is often called wisdom weed, and in India, it has long been seen in this way.

Long-term physical effects of smoking

In some ways, the effects of smoking cannabis are similar to the effects of smoking any substance. Any time you inhale smoke, the respiratory system is adversely affected. These effects are particularly apparent with repeated and prolonged use. Studies have pointed out that cannabis produces more tar and burns at a higher temperature than tobacco. Some cannabis smokers inhale the smoke more deeply and hold it in their lungs for a longer period of time. However, the average cannabis user smokes less frequently, and there is evidence that cannabinoids present in cannabis may actually serve to protect against cancer. [1] (http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108-10/correspondence.html#thc) Furthermore, the concentration of toxic and carcinogenic additives such as nicotine, arsenic, and radium-226, is substantially greater in tobacco cigarettes than in cannabis.

While some studies have demonstrated a correlation between cannabis use and lung cancer, this might primarily indicate only that cannabis use may correlate with tobacco use, and more objective scientific attention is needed to separate these and other factors in order to better understand the potential long-term physiological effects of cannabis use itself.

Medical use

Main article: Medical marijuana

Medically, cannabis is most often used as an appetite stimulant and pain reliever for certain terminal illnesses such as cancer and AIDS. It is also used to relieve glaucoma and certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy ,migraine and bipolar disorder. The medical use of cannabis is politically controversial, but it is sometimes recommended informally by physicians. A synthetic version of the active ingredient in cannabis, THC, is readily available in the form of a pill as the prescription drug Marinol. THC has also been found to reduce arterial blockages.[2] (http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050404/full/050404-7.html) A sublingual spray derived from an extract of cannabis has also been approved for treatment of multiple sclerosis in Canada as the prescription drug Sativex.

See section History for information on historic and other medical use.

Spiritual use

Cannabis has a long history of spiritual use, especially in India, where it has been used by wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries. The most famous religious group to use cannabis in a spiritual context are the Rastafari movement, though they are by no means the only group.

It is not known when or why the Rastafarians made cannabis into something sacred, though it is clear that by the late 1940s Rastafari was associated with cannabis smoking at the Pinnacle community of Leonard Howell. Rastafarians claim to know that cannabis is the Tree of Life mentioned in the Bible. Bob Marley, amongst many others, said, "the herb [ganja] is the healing of the nations". The use of cannabis, and particularly of large pipes called "chalices", is an integral part of what Rastafarians call Reasoning sessions. They see cannabis as having the capacity to allow the user to penetrate the truth of how things are much more clearly, as if the wool had been pulled from the eyes of the former non-user. Thus the Rastafarians come together to smoke marijuana in order to discuss the truth with each other, reasoning it all out little by little through many sessions. In this way Rastafarians believe that cannabis brings the user closer to Jah.

Some have contended that the Old Testament book of Exodus at 30:23 included cannabis as one of the ingredients in the holy anointing oil which was to be used by Jewish priests. This claim is founded on the Hebrew reference to "kanehbosm" (aromatic hemp), which has however been translated variously by other sources as meaning calamus or even cinnamon. The etymological significance aside, calamus and cinnamon are not known to produce the kinds of spiritual experiences associated with anointment.

Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion.

Preparations for human consumption

Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms:

• Marijuana or buds, the resin gland-rich flowering tops of female plants.
  • Sinsemilla or sensemillia, flowering tops which are free of seeds as a result of being grown in a pollen-free environment.
• kief or kif, a powder containing the resin glands (glandular trichomes, often incorrectly called "crystals" or "pollen"). It is produced by sifting marijuana and leaves.
• Hashish, a concentrated resin made from pressing kif into blocks.
• Charas, produced by hand-rubbing the resin from the resin gland-rich parts of the plant. Often thin dark rectangular pieces.
• Bhang, prepared by the wet grinding of the leaves of the plant and used as a drink.
• Hash oil, resulting from extraction or distillation of THC-rich parts of the plant.
• Minimally potent leaves and detritus, called shake, bush or leaf.

There are also three different species of Cannabis. These include Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis, the latter containing somewhat less THC. They differ in their appearance and the highs they produce.

Smoking

The most common method of cannabis consumption is by smoking a hit through one of several classes of devices:

1. By rolling it up, either manually or with a rolling machine, into a cigarette, often called a spliff or joint, with thin rolling papers, or into a cigar, often called a blunt, with wrapper obtained by removing the tobacco from the inside of a standard cigar. In such preparation, tobacco or other smokable material are sometimes combined into a single roll.
2. By using a smoking pipe, often called a bowl, usually made of blown glass, wood, or sometimes metal. Blown-glass pipes are usually intricately and colorfully designed, with colors becoming more vivid after repeated use. Such pipes usually have a rush or carb hole which is covered by a finger for suction when beginning smoking, which is released to finish inhalation without advancing the burning any further. Tobacco pipes, pipes home-made by the user, and others, are also sometimes used. Some users prefer a vertically held ceramic or glass pipe, known as a chillum, coming from India.
3. In a water-pipe, or bong, by which the smoke is filtered through water into a large chamber. While it is a common belief that bongs make smoking safer a NORML-MAPS study found that the water filters out more THC than tar. Despite this, bong use is common and enables smoking techniques that are not possible with a simple smoking pipe. Other designs include the waterfall bong and bucket bong. The term gravity bong has different meaning in different cultures but usually refers to either of these two latter devices.
4. A further method, commonly referred to as spotting or hot knives, is when two knives are heated (usually on a stove-top element) until red-hot. A small amount of resin, or marijuana (oil or bud), known as a spot is then pressed between the knives and the resulting smoke inhaled through a funnel, often made from a bottomless soft-drink bottle. This method is often used when no other materials for smoking are at hand, and is also thought to be more efficient, as there is no idle burning between inhalations.

Oral consumption

Cannabis may be orally consumed by blending it with alcohol or fats. With this method, some claim that more cannabis must be used. The effects of the drug take longer to begin, but last longer and may be more physical rather than mental. It is thought that the active component of cannabis, delta- 9 THC, is converted to the more psychoactive delta-11 THC in the liver. It takes some experience for one to regulate the dose. Common preparations involve blending with butter that is used in preparing brownies, fudge or cookies. Infusion in drinks containing milk and flavoring herbs is also possible, and more common in India.

As with other drugs that are taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before taking the drug to increase the effect (possibly because an empty stomach will absorb the drug faster so it 'hits' you more strongly). Still, it usually takes more than an hour for the effects to set in, as opposed to smoking, where it takes but a few minutes.

Preparing cannabis for oral consumption must be done with fats or alcohol. Contrary to popular belief, Cannabis Tea does not contain significant amounts of THC, because THC, along with the other cannabinoids, is highly insoluble in water, but readily dissolves into the fats and alcohol. The tea is, however, reputed to be a tasty and relaxing drink.

The seeds of the plant, high in protein and fatty acids, can also be roasted and eaten. They contain little THC.

See Cooking with cannabis external links below.

Vaporization

Usually with a vaporizer, cannabis can be heated to a temperature at which the active ingredients are released into gaseous form with little or no burning of the plant material. With this method, the user does not inhale as many toxic chemicals that are byproducts of combustion and so may be less harmful. It is worth noting that the effects of combustion break down many of the cannabinoids present in cannabis to varying degrees when smoked. By contrast, vaporization may preserve some of these cannabinoids, although the concentrations of the various cannabinoids may be disparate to those in smoked cannabis. As a result, some users claim to experience subtly different effects when using cannabis in this way. In addition, users note an improved ability to distinguish subtle characteristics of flavor and aroma, in absence of lighter gas fumes or burnt matter.

Legality

Main article: Legal issues of cannabis

Since the twentieth century, most legal jurisdictions of the world have laws against the cultivation, use, possession, or transfer of cannabis (and these laws impact adversely of course on the herb's cultivation for non-drug purposes) but there are many regions where certain circumstances of cannabis handling are legal or licensed and others where laws against its use, possession, or sale are not enforced. Many jurisdictions have also decriminalized possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation and/or a fine, rather than imprisonment. By effectively removing the user from the criminal justice system, decriminalization focuses more on those who traffic and sell the drug on the black market. Increasingly, many jurisdictions also permit cannabis use for medicinal purposes.

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