Kitchen

These will consist of between 6 and 12 workstations, each with their own oven, sink and kitchen utensils. The Liberty Memorial is dedicated to World War I and World War II victories for liberty against the Axis. In Schools where Home Economics (HE) or Food technology (previously known as Domestic science) is taught, there will be a series of kitchens with multiple equipment (similar in some respects to laboratories) solely for the purpose of teaching. The Statue of Liberty is often used as a symbol of the ideals of the United States, and in particular of liberty in general; as such it is a favored symbol of US libertarians. Military camps and similar temporary settlements of nomads may have dedicated kitchen tents. The pedestal was constructed by the United States. Outdoor areas in which food is prepared are generally not considered to be kitchens, although an outdoor area set up for regular food preparation, for instance when camping, might be called an "outdoor kitchen". The copper statue of the goddess of Liberty was a present from the Republic of France, as a centennial gift to the US and a sign of friendship between the two nations.

The astronauts' food is generally completely prepared, dehydrated, and sealed in plastic pouches, and the kitchen is reduced to a rehydration and heating module. A Statue of Liberty now exists at the entrance to New York harbour in the United States. aboard a Space Shuttle (where it is also called the "galley") or the International Space Station. A statue of the goddess Liberty was also put up by Clodius on the site of Cicero's house after it had been pulled down. An extreme form of the kitchen occurs in space, e.g. A temple was erected to the goddess Liberty on the Aventine Hill in Rome by the father of Tiberius Gracchus during the second Punic War. On passenger airplanes, the kitchen is reduced to a mere pantry, the only function reminiscent of a kitchen is the heating of in-flight meals (where they haven't been "optimized" away altogether) delivered by a catering company. Some notable quotations that include liberty are:.

On yachts, galleys are often cramped, with one or two gas burners fuelled by a gas bottle, but kitchens on cruise ships or large warships are comparable in every respect with restaurants or canteen kitchens. Liberty can refer to various concepts of freedom. Galleys are kitchens aboard ships (although the term galley is also often used to refer to a railroad dining car's kitchen). See also: Anarchism, Libertarianism, Libertarian socialism, Positive liberty, Negative liberty. Especially in the early history of the railway this required flawless organization of processes; in modern times, the microwave oven and prepared meals have made this task a lot easier. Some think liberty is almost synonymous with democracy, at least in one sense of that word, while others see conflicts or even opposition between the two concepts. The kitchens in railway dining cars present special challenges: space is constrained, and nevertheless the personnel must be able to serve a great number of meals quickly. 1741-2) Some in the US see protecting the ideal of liberty as a conservative policy, because this would conform to the spirit of individual liberty that they consider is at the heart of the American constitution.

There is a trend for restaurants to only "finish" delivered convenience food or even just re-heat completely prepared meals, maybe at the utmost grilling a hamburger or a steak. David Hume wrote "Of Civil Liberty", in his book "Essays Moral and Political" (first ed. The fast food and convenience food trends have also changed the way restaurant kitchens operate. From a very similar perspective from North America, primitivists like John Zerzan proclaimed that civilization not just the state would need to be abolished to foster liberty. (As of 2004, steamers—not to be confused with a pressure cooker—are beginning to find their way into domestic households, sometimes as a combined appliance of oven and steamer.). Individualists, such as Max Stirner, demanded the utmost respect for the liberty of the individual. Some special appliances are typical for professional kitchens, such as large installed deep fryers, steamers, or a Bain Marie. constitutional law, for example, they point out that the constitution twice lists "life, liberty, and property" without making any distinctions within that troika.

Professional kitchens are often equipped with gas stoves, as these allow cooks to regulate the heat quicker and more finely than electrical stoves. In the context of U.S. Today's western restaurant kitchens typically have tiled walls and floors and use stainless steel for other surfaces (workbench, but also door and drawer fronts) because these materials are durable and easy to clean. A school of thought popular among US libertarians holds that there is no tenable distinction between the two sorts of liberty -- that they are, indeed, one and the same, to be protected (or opposed) together. For instance, Benjamin Thompson's "energy saving stove", an early 19th century fully-closed iron stove using one fire to heat several pots, was designed for large kitchens; another thirty years passed before they were adapted for domestic use. Both are core political issues, and highly contentious. Canteen kitchens (and castle kitchens) were often the places where new technology was used first. In the United States it often refers to social liberalism, including the right to dissent from orthodox tenets or established authorities in political or religious matters.

They are inspected periodically by public-health officials, and forced to close if they don't meet hygienic requirements mandated by law. In continental Europe the term usually refers to economic liberalism, that is the right of individual to contract, trade and operate in a market free of constraint. Restaurant and canteen kitchens found in hotels, hospitals, army barracks and similar establishments are generally (in developed countries) subject to public health laws. Two main strands are apparent. Kitchens with enough space to eat in are sometimes called "eat-in kitchens". Liberalism is a political current embracing several historical and present-day ideologies that claim defence of individual liberty as the purpose of government. Such areas are called "breakfast areas", "breakfast nooks" or "breakfast bars" if the space is integrated into a kitchen counter. "Nothing in them [voluntary transactions] is forbidden," said Ibn Taymiyyah, "unless God and His Messenger have decreed them to be forbidden." The idea is founded upon two verses in the Qur'an, 4:29 and 5:1.

Modern kitchens often have enough informal space to allow for people to eat in it without having to use the formal dining room. Although the idea of liberty is largely underdeveloped in traditional Middle Eastern philosophy and, more importantly, theology, Muslim jurists have long held that the legal tradition initiated by the Qur'an includes a principle of permissibility, or Ibahah, especially as applied to commercial transaction. This observation led to a few common kitchen forms, commonly characterized by the arrangement of the kitchen cabinets and sink, stove, and refrigerator:. The Jewish religious tradition features several individuals who stood up to statist power at crucial moments, including of course Moses, who demanded that the Pharaoh of Egypt "let my people go." The Maccabees rebelled against mandatory assimilation to Greek culture and the Zealots (less successfully) rose against the Roman Empire. A natural arrangement is a triangle, with the refrigerator, the sink, and the stove at a vertex each. He taught that government by example and "not doing" (wú wéi) was superior to government by law and discipline. It was there that the notion of the "kitchen work triangle" was formalized: the three main functions in a kitchen are storage, preparation, and cooking (which Catherine Beecher had already recognized), and the places for these functions should be arranged in the kitchen in such a way that work at one place does not interfere with work at another place, the distance between these places is not unnecessarily large, and no obstacles are in the way. The Chinese sage Lao Tsu warned against over-reaching governments, in a way analogous to the development in the western world of post-Lockean ideas of negative liberty.

In the U.S., the "Small Homes Council", since 1993 the "Building Research Council", of the School of Architecture of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign was founded in 1944 with the goal to improve the state of the art in home building, originally with an emphasis on standardization for cost reduction. Much of this philosophy stems from religious views, although Christians, Jews, Muslims and followers of other religions have often practiced slavery in the past. Nevertheless, kitchen design was mostly ad-hoc following the whims of the architect. The chief philosophical ground for "liberty" in this most recent period has been the idea of human rights and that human beings are too valuable to be in slavery (as well as the idea that human beings ought to control their own destiny). While this "work kitchen" and variants derived from it were a great success for tenement buildings, home owners had different demands and didn't want to be constrained by a 6.4 m² kitchen. The first half of the 19th century for Western civilization was marked by a series of turbulent wars and revolutions, which gradually formed into an idea and doctrine now identified as individual liberty. A social housing project in Frankfurt (the Römerstadt of architect Ernst May) realized in 1927/28 was the breakthrough for her Frankfurt kitchen, which embodied this new notion of efficiency in the kitchen. Later, more radical philosophies articulated themselves in the course of the French Revolution and in the 19th century.

Her ideas were taken up in the 1920s by architects in Germany and Austria, most notably Bruno Taut, Erna Meyer, and Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky. The Enlightenment created then, among other ideas, liberty: that is, of a free individual being most free within the context of a state which provides stability of the laws. Christine Frederick published from 1913 a series of articles on "New Household Management" in which she analyzed the kitchen following Taylorist priciples, presented detailed time-motion studies, and derived a kitchen design from them. The conception of law as a relationship between individuals, rather than families, came to the fore, and with it the increasing focus on individual liberty as a fundamental reality, given by "Nature and Nature's God," which, in the ideal state, would be as expansive as possible. Beecher even separated the functions of preparing food and cooking it altogether by moving the stove into a compartment adjacent to the kitchen. The thinkers of the Enlightenment reasoned the assertion that law governed both heavenly and human affairs, and that law gave the king his power, rather than the king's power giving force to law. The design included regular shelves on the walls, ample work space, and dedicated storage areas for various food items. Christian theology developed elaborate ideas about the relationship between liberty and the morality of action, as is seen in the works of Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas.

Beecher's "model kitchen" propagated for the first time a systematic design based on early ergonomics. Liberty was greatly prized by many classical writers such as Aristotle, Demosthenes, Cicero and Tacitus, often in the context of democratic institutions. The first ideas to optimize the work in the kitchen go back to Catherine Beecher's A Treatise on Domestic Economy (1843, revised and republished together with her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe as The American Woman's Home in 1869). . Domestic kitchen design per se is a relatively recent discipline. It is often equated with freedom (as by Quentin Skinner (1998) Liberty before Liberalism, citing Hobbes's Leviathan), although some have argued a distinction (eg David Hackett Fischer (2005) Liberty and Freedom: a visual history of America's founding ideas). For others, who followed the "cooking as a social act" trend, the open kitchen had the advantage that they could be with their guests while cooking, and for the "creative cooks" it might even become a stage for their cooking performance. Liberty is generally thought of as a condition in which an individual has immunity from the arbitrary exercise of authority; it often also implies the right to exercise political rights such as standing for office.

Whereas in the 1950s most cooking started out with raw ingredients and a meal had to be prepared for real, the advent of frozen meals and pre-prepared convenience food changed the cooking habits of many people, who consequently used the kitchen less and less. "Any society that would give up a little liberty to gain a little security will deserve neither and lose both." Benjamin Franklin. Another reason for the trend back to open kitchens (and a foundation of the "kitchen object" philosophy) is changes in how food is prepared. His own good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant." John Stuart Mill, On Liberty. However, like their precursor, Colani's "kitchen satellite", such futuristic designs are exceptions. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. Some architects have capitalized on this "object" aspect of the kitchen by designing freestanding "kitchen objects". "That principle is, that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection.

The enhanced status of cooking also made the kitchen a prestige object for showing off one's wealth or cooking professionalism. Tiffany, 1819. Besides, many families also appreciated the trend towards open kitchens, as it made it easier for the parents to supervise the kids while cooking. I do not add 'within the limits of the law,' because law is often but the tyrant's will, and always so when it violates the right of an individual." Thomas Jefferson to Isaac H. The re-integration of the kitchen and the living area went hand in hand with a change in the perception of cooking: increasingly, cooking was seen as a creative and sometimes social act instead of work, especially in upper social classes. But rightful liberty is unobstructed action according to our will within limits drawn around us by the equal rights of others. The extractor hood made it possible to build open kitchens in apartments, too, where both high ceilings and skylights were not possible. "Of liberty I would say that, in the whole plenitude of its extent, it is unobstructed action according to our will.

Both had open kitchens, with high ceilings (up to the roof) and were aired by skylights. "Every law is an infringement upon liberty." Jeremy Bentham. Examples are Frank Lloyd Wright's House Willey (1934) and House Jacobs (1936). "[N]or shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law...." Id., Amendment XIV. Before that, only a few earlier experiments, typically in newly built upper middle class family homes, had open kitchens. Constitution, Amendment V. Starting in the 1980s, the perfection of the extractor hood allowed an open kitchen again, integrated more or less with the living room without causing the whole apartment or house to smell. deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law...." U.S.

The kitchen was reduced to the max and the "work kitchen" paradigm taken to its extremes: in East Germany for instance, the standard tenement block of the model "P2" had tiny 4 m² kitchens in the inside of the building (no windows), connected to the dining and living room of the 55 m² apartment and separated from the latter by a pass-through or a window. "No person shall be .. Also, housing had to be built at low costs and quickly, which led directly to the standardized apartment block using prefabricated slabs. "Give me liberty or give me death!" — Patrick Henry. In the former Eastern bloc countries, the official doctrine viewed cooking as a mere necessity, and women should work "for the society" in factories, not at home. "In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas" — Rupertus Meldenius. Such extravaganzas remained outside the norm, though. "The defining principle of democracy is liberty, one aspect of which is having a share in ruling." Aristotle, Politics.

General technocentric enthusiasm even led some designers to take the "work kitchen" approach even further, culminating in futuristic designs like Luigi Colani's "kitchen satellite" (1969, commissioned by the German high-end kitchen manufacturer Poggenpohl for an exhibit), in which the room was reduced to a ball with a chair in the middle and all appliances at arm's length, an optimal arrangement maybe for "applying heat to food", but not necessarily for actual cooking. "Perfect liberty";. There, the kitchens usually were somewhat larger, suitable for everyday use as a dining room, but otherwise the ongoing technicalization was the same, and the use of unit furniture became a standard also in this market sector. "Liberty of worship";. Parallel to this development in tenement buildings went the evolution of the kitchen in homeowner's houses. "Liberty of opinion";. Following the end of World War II, massive demand in Europe for low-price, high-tech consumer goods led to Western European kitchens being designed to accommodate new appliances such as refrigerators and electric/gas cookers.

A trend began in the 1940s in the United States to equip the kitchen with electrified small and large kitchen appliances such as blenders, toasters, and later also microwave ovens. Soon the concept was amended by the use of smooth synthetic door and drawer fronts, first in white, recalling a sense of cleanliness and alluding to sterile lab or hospital settings, but soon after in lively, friendly colors, too. The concept was refined in the "Swedish kitchen" using unit furniture with wooden fronts for the kitchen cabinets. Not much later, the refrigerator was added as a standard item.

The equipment used remained a standard for years to come: hot and cold water on tap and a kitchen sink and an electrical or gas stove and oven. The idea of standardized dimensions and layout developed for the Frankfurt kitchen took hold. Practical reasons also played a role in this development: just as in the bourgeois homes of the past, one reason for separating the kitchen was to keep the steam and smells of cooking out of the living room. The kitchen once more was seen as a work place that needed to be separated from the living areas.

Too small to live or dine in, it was soon criticized as "exiling the women in the kitchen", but the post-World War II conservatism coupled with economic reasons prevailed. But the Frankfurt kitchen embodied a standard for the rest of the 20th century in rental apartments: the "work kitchen". The initial reception was heavily critical: people were not accustomed to the changed processes also designed by Schütte-Lihotzky; it was so small that only one person could work in it; some storage spaces intended for raw loose food ingredients such as flour were reachable by children. It was built in some 10,000 apartments in a social housing project of architect Ernst May in Frankfurt.

The design, created by Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, was the result of detailed time-motion studies and heavily influenced by the railway dining car kitchens of the period. It was built for two purposes: to optimize kitchen work to reduce cooking time (so that women would have more time for the factory) and to lower the cost of building decently-equipped kitchens. Developed in 1926, this kitchen measured 1.9m by 3.4m (approximately 6'2" by 11'2"), with a standard layout. Social housing projects led to the next milestone: the "Frankfurt kitchen".

Working class women frequently worked in factories to ensure the family's survival, as the men's wages often did not suffice. These ideas also spilled over into domestic kitchen architecture due to a growing trend that called for a professionalization of household work, started in the mid-19th century by Catharine Beecher and amplified by Christine Frederick's publications in the 1910s. Taylorism was born, and time-motion studies were used to optimize processes. In industry, it was the phase of rationalisation, where work processes were attempted to be streamlined.

The trend to increasing gasification and electrification continued at the turn of the 20th century. Gas and water pipes were first installed in the big cities; small villages were connected only much later. In rural areas, the older technology using coal or wood stoves or even brick-and-mortar open fireplaces remained common throughout. Where workers' apartments were equipped with a gas stove, gas distribution would go through a coin meter.

Gas was more expensive than coal, though, and thus the new technology first was installed in the wealthier homes. Gas pipes were laid only in the late 19th century, and gas stoves started to replace the older coal-fired stoves. Besides a cupboard to store the kitchenware, there were a table and chairs, where the family would dine, and sometimes—if space allowed—even a fauteuil or a couch. Because of this, these middle-class kitchens often were more homely than those of the upper class, where the kitchen was a work-only room occupied only by the servants.

The study or living room was saved for special occasions such as an occasional dinner invitation. Living in smaller apartments, the kitchen was the main room—here, the family lived. The middle class tried to imitate the luxurious dining styles of the upper class as best as it could. A large table served as a workbench; there were at least as many chairs as there were servants, for the table in the kitchen also doubled as the eating place for the servants.

The kitchen floors were tiled; kitchenware was neatly stored in cupboards to protect them from dust and steam. For the servants the kitchen continued to serve also as a sleeping room; they slept either on the floor, or later in narrow spaces above a lowered ceiling, for the new stoves with their smoke outlet no longer required a high ceiling in the kitchen. The kitchen became a much cleaner space with the advent of "cooking machines", closed stoves made of iron plates and fired by wood and increasingly charcoal or coal, and that had flue pipes connected to the chimney. In some houses, water pumps were installed, and some even had kitchen sinks and drains (but no water on tap yet, except for some feudal kitchens in castles).

The kitchen, located in the basement or the ground floor, continued to be operated by servants. In contrast, there were no dramatic changes for the upper classes. Pots and kitchenware typically were stored on open shelves, and parts of the room could be separated from the rest using simple curtains. Brick-and-mortar stoves fired with coal remained the norm until well into the second half of the century.

Water pipes were laid only towards the end of the 19th century, and then often only with one tap per building or per story. Water had to be fetched from wells and heated on the stove. The kitchen in such an apartment was often used as a living and sleeping room, and even as a bathroom. Sometimes, they shared apartments with "night sleepers", unmarried men that paid for a bed at night.

Whole families lived in small one or two-room apartments in tenement buildings up to six stories high, badly aired and with insufficient lighting. The new factory working class in the cities was housed under generally poor conditions. Industrialization also caused social changes. The first electrical stove had been presented in 1893 at the Chicago world fair, but it wasn't until the 1930s that the technology was stable enough and began to take off.

But like the gas stove, the electrical stove had a slow start. At the turn of the 20th century, electricity had been mastered well enough to become a commercially viable alternative to gas and slowly started replacing the latter. Gas pipes were laid; gas was used first for lighting purposes, but once the network had grown sufficiently, it became available also for heating and cooking on gas stoves. Out of sheer necessity, cities began planning and building water distribution pipes into homes, and built canalisations to deal with the waste water.

The urbanization in the second half of the 19th century induced other significant changes that ultimately would also change the kitchen. patent on a gas stove was granted in 1825, it wasn't until the late 19th century that using gas for lighting and cooking became commonplace in urban areas. Although the first gas street lamps were installed in Paris, London, and Berlin at the beginning of the 1820s and the first U.S. These stoves were still fired with wood or coal.

in 1834 and became a commercial success with some 90,000 units sold over the next 30 years. The "Oberlin stove" was a refinement of the technique that resulted in a size reduction; it was patented in the U.S. However, his stove was designed for large kitchens; it was too big for domestic use. This stove was much more energy efficient than earlier stoves; it used one fire to heat several pots, which were hung into holes on top of the stove and were thus heated from all sides instead of just from the bottom.

Benjamin Thompson in England designed his "Rumford stove" around 1800. Early models included the Franklin stove around 1740, which was a furnace stove intended for heating, not for cooking. Iron stoves, which enclosed the fire completely and were more efficient, appeared. Technological advances during industrialization brought major changes to the kitchen.

Completely separated "summer kitchens" also developed on larger farms further north to avoid that the main house was heated by the preparation of the meals for the harvest workers or tasks like canning. In addition, the area's warm climate made operating a kitchen quite unpleasant, especially in the summer. In southern estates, the kitchen was often relegated to an outhouse, separated from the mansion, for much of the same reasons as in the feudal kitchen in medieval Europe: the kitchen was operated by slaves, and their working place had to be separated from the living area of the masters by the social standards of the time. The development in the southern states was quite different, but then, so were the climate and sociological conditions.

Later, the kitchen did become a separate room, but remained within the building. The early settlers in the north often had no separate kitchen; a fireplace in a corner of the cabin served as the kitchen space. In the Colonial American kitchen, the same distinction as for the medieval European kitchen is visible. The smoke then rose more or less freely, warming the upstairs rooms and protecting the woodwork from vermin.

These houses often had no chimney, but only a smoke hood above the fireplace, made of wood and covered with clay, and used to smoke meat. In a few European farmhouses, the smoke kitchen was in regular use until the middle of the 20th century. The medieval smoke kitchen remained common, especially in rural farmhouses and generally in poorer homes, until much later. Poorer homes often did not have a separate kitchen yet; they kept the one-room arrangement where all activities took place, or at the most had the kitchen in the entrance hall.

In the upper classes, cooking and the kitchen were the domain of the servants, and the kitchen was set apart from the living rooms, sometimes even far from the dining room. Freed from smoke and dirt, the living room thus began to serve as an area for social functions and increasingly became a showcase for the owner's wealth and was sometimes prestigiously furnished. The living room was now heated by tiled stoves, operated from the kitchen, which offered the huge advantage of not filling the room with smoke. Beginning in the late middle ages, kitchens in Europe lost their home-heating function even more and were increasingly moved from the living area into a separate room.

Using open fire for cooking (and heating) was risky; fires devastating whole cities occurred frequently. This kind of system was widely used in wealthier homes. Leonardo da Vinci invented an automated system for a rotating spit for spit-roasting: a propeller in the chimney made the spit turn all by itself. The temperature was controlled by hanging the pot higher or lower over the fire, or placing it on a trivet or directly on the hot ashes.

Pots made of iron, bronze, or copper started to replace the pottery used earlier. The fire was lit on top of the construction; a vault underneath served to store wood. With the advent of the chimney, the hearth moved from the center of the room to one wall, and the first brick-and-mortar hearths were built. In Japanese homes, the kitchen started to become a separate room within the main building at that time.

In castles and monasteries, the living and working areas were separated; the kitchen was moved to a separate building, and thus couldn't serve anymore to heat the living rooms. In wealthy homes, the ground floor was often used as a stable while the kitchen was located on the floor above, like the bedroom and the hall. In European medieval cities around the 10th to 12th centuries, the kitchen still used an open fire hearth in the middle of the room. European medieval kitchens were dark, smokey, and sooty places, whence their name "smoke kitchen".

The kitchen remained largely unaffected by architectural advances throughout the middle ages; open fire remained the only method of heating food. A kamado was used to cook the staple food, for instance rice, while irori served both to cook side dishes and as a heat source. A kind of open fire pit fired with charcoal, called irori, remained in use as the secondary stove in most homes until the Edo period (17th to 19th century). Like in Europe, the wealthier homes had a separate building which served for cooking.

This type of stove remained in use for centuries to come, with only minor modifications. These stoves, called kamado, were typically made of clay and mortar; they were fired with wood or charcoal through a hole in the front and had a hole in the top, into which a pot could be hanged by its rim. The earliest findings are from the Kofun period (3rd to 6th century). The first known stoves in Japan date from about the same time.

In the larger homesteads of European nobles, the kitchen was sometimes in a separate sunken floor building to keep the main building, which served social and official purposes, free from smoke. A similar design can be found in the Iroquois longhouses of North America. Besides cooking, the fire also served as a source of heat and light to the single-room building. In place of a chimney, these early buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke could escape.

The "kitchen area" was between the entrance and the fireplace. Early medieval European longhouses had an open fire under the highest point of the building. There were no chimneys. The fireplace was typically on the floor, placed at a wall--sometimes raised a little bit--such that one had to kneel to cook.

In a Roman villa, the kitchen was typically integrated into the main building as a separate room, set apart for practical reasons of smoke and sociological reasons of the kitchen being operated by slaves. Wealthy Romans had relatively well-equipped kitchens. Some had small mobile bronze stoves, on which a fire could be lit for cooking. In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities often had no kitchen of their own; they did their cooking in large public kitchens.

In such houses, there was often a separate small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food and kitchen utensils. Homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a separate room, usually next to a bathroom (so that both rooms could be heated by the kitchen fire), both rooms being accessible from the court. In many such homes, a covered but otherwise open patio served as the kitchen. The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type: the rooms were arranged around a central courtyard.

Water on tap only became gradually available during industrialization; before, water had to be collected from the nearest well and heated in the kitchen. When technical advances brought new ways to heat food in the 18th and 19th centuries, architects took advantage of newly-gained flexibility to bring fundamental changes to the kitchen. Until the 18th century, open fire was the sole means of heating food, and the architecture of the kitchen reflected this. The development of the kitchen has been intricately and intrinsically linked with the development of the cooking range or stove.

. Sometimes, it is the most comforting room in a house, where family and visitors tend to congregate. The kitchen may also be the place where the family eats, provided it is large enough. If a washing machine is present, washing and drying laundry is also done in the kitchen.

Although the main function of a kitchen is cooking, it can be the center of other activities as well, especially within homes, depending on its size, furnishing, and equipment. Some installations to store food usually also are present, either in the form of an adjacent pantry or more commonly cabinets and a refrigerator. Modern kitchens often also feature a dishwasher. A modern kitchen is typically equipped with a stove or microwave oven and has a sink with water on tap for cleaning food and dishwashing.

A kitchen is a room used for food preparation. Daidokoro - the kitchen in Japan. Online edition of Nicolas Cahill's Household and City Organization at Olynthus (ISBN 0-300-08495-1), which has some information about the kitchens in ancient Greek times. E.: Encyclopedia of Kitchen History; Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers; (November 2004); ISBN 1-579-58380-6.

Snodgrass, M. In English. The introduction is available online. A.: The Bathroom, the Kitchen, and the Aesthetics of Waste, Princeton Architectural Press; 1996; ISBN 1-568-98096-5.

and Miller, J. Lupton, E. Harrison, M.: The Kitchen in History, Osprey; 1972; ISBN 0-850-45068-3; out of print. The text is vailable at Project Gutenberg at [1].

and Beecher Stowe, H.: The American Woman's Home, 1869. E. Beecher, C. In German; out of print.

(Ed.): Oikos: Von der Feuerstelle zur Mikrowelle, Anabes, Giessen 1992; ISBN 3-870-38669-X. Andritzky, M. Both in German. Gang" (PDF file, 5 Mb).

Two collections of architecture students' works on the kitchen: "Küchen" (PDF file, 3 Mb) and "Küchen, 2. In German. (Ed.): Die Küche — Zur Geschichte eines architektonischen, sozialen und imaginativen Raums, Verlag Böhlau, Vienna 1999; ISBN 3-205-99076-5. et al.

Miklautz, E. Japanese kitchens. In a closed room, this doesn't make much sense, but in an open kitchen, it makes the stove accessible from all sides such that two persons can cook together, and allows for contact with guests or the rest of the family, for the cook doesn't face the wall anymore. Here, the stove or both the stove and the sink are placed where an L or U kitchen would have a table, in a freestanding "island", separated from the other cabinets.

The block kitchen is a more recent development, typically found in open kitchens. This is a typical work kitchen, too, unless the two other cabinet rows are short enough to place a table at the fourth wall. A U-kitchen has cabinets along three walls, typically with the sink at the base of the "U". Again, the work triangle is preserved, and there may even be space for an additional table at a third wall, provided it doesn't intersect the triangle.

In the L-kitchen, the cabinets occupy two adjacent walls. This is the classical work kitchen. The double file kitchen (also known as galley or corridor) has two rows of cabinets at opposite walls, one containing the stove and the sink, the other the refrigerator. This is not optimal, but often the only solution if space is restricted.

A single file kitchen has all of these along one wall; the work triangle degenerates to a line.