Girl

There are many other stories with girls as protagonists in the Shōjo style of manga, which is targeted to girls as an audience. Uses copper prosthetic group instead of iron heme groups and is blue in color when oxygenated. Most of the animated films of Hayao Miyazaki feature a young girl as the hero, as in Majo no takkyūbin (Kiki's Delivery Service). Found in the blood of many arthropods and molluscs. In Japanese manga and anime, girls are often protagonists. Hemocyanin: Second most common oxygen transporting protein found in nature. Franco-Belgian comics with girls in a central role include Isabelle (by Will) and Sophie (by Jidéhem). Is very similar to hemoglobin in structure and sequence, but is not arranged in tetramers, it is a monomer and lacks cooperative binding and is used to store oxygen rather than transport it.

The most famous Flemish comic strip is Spike and Suzy (Suske and Wiske), about the adventures of a boy and a girl (each about 10 years old); it was translated from Flemish into French and English. Myoglobin: Found in the muscle tissue of many vertebrates including humans (gives muscle tissue a distinct red or dark gray color). In the Peanuts series (by Charles Schulz), girl characters include Peppermint Patty, Lucy van Pelt, and Sally Brown. Other organisms including bacteria, protozoans and fungi all have hemoglobin-like proteins whose known and predicted roles include the reversible binding of gaseous ligands. In superhero comic books, an early girl character was Etta Candy, one of Wonder Woman's sidekicks. Hemoglobin is by no means unique; there are a variety of oxygen transport and binding proteins throughout the animal (and plant) kingdom. There have been many American comic books and comic strips featuring a girl as the main character, such as Little Lulu, Little Orphan Annie, Girl Genius, and Amelia Rules. It measures the degree of glycation (glucose binding) to albumin, the most common blood protein, and reflects average blood glucose levels over the previous 18-21 days, which is the half-life of albumin molecules in the circulation.

Books which have both boy and girl protagonists tend to focus on the boys, but important girl characters appear in Knight's Castle, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, The Book of Three, and the Harry Potter series (by Book 6, Harry Potter's social circle includes 1 boy and 2 girls, although newcomer Ginny still isn't let into secrets like Ron and Hermione are). In these individuals an alternative test called "fructosamine level" can be used. Children's books about girls include Little House on the Prairie, Eloise, Pippi Longstocking, Dragonsong, and A Wrinkle in Time. In individuals with abnormal RBCs, whether due to abnormal hemoglobin molecules (such as Hemoglobin S in Sickle Cell Anemia) or RBC membrane defects - or other problems, the RBC half-life is frequently shortened. European fairy tales include some memorable stories about girls, including Goldilocks and the Three Bears; Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Match Girl, The Little Mermaid, and The Princess and the Pea; the Brothers Grimm's Little Red Riding Hood; and others.
This Hb A_1c level is only useful in individuals who have red blood cells (RBCs) with normal survivals (i.e., normal half-life). Most early children's stories focused on boys, with the notable exception of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, by Lewis Carroll, whose photographs of little girls are part of the history of photographic art.
. This test is especially useful for diabetics.

Other novels include Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, which has a young girl as protagonist; and Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita, about a girl subjected to sexual abuse. Hb A_1c values which are more than 7.0% are elevated. Examples include Jane Eyre, who suffers ill treatment; and Natasha in War and Peace, who is sentimentalized. People whose Hb A_1c runs 6.0% or less show good longer-term glucose control. Many novels begin with the childhood of their heroine. For this reason a blood sample may be analyzed for Hb A_1c level, which is more representative of glucose control averaged over a longer time period (determined by the half-life of the individual's red blood cells, which is typically 50-55 days). As in art, portrayals of girls in literature can reflect the social norms of the time at which they were written.
Glucose levels in blood can vary widely each hour, so one or only a few samples from a patient analyzed for glucose may not be representative of glucose control in the long run.

Only Sappho's poetry includes love poems addressed to girls. In diabetics whose glucose usually runs high, the percent Hb A_1c also runs high. Ancient Greek classical art and literature paid scant attention to female children, though there are many poems about boys. As the concentration of glucose in the blood increases, the percentage of Hb A that turns into Hb A_1c increases. Egyptian murals included sympathetic portraits of young girls of royal descent. The resulting molecule is often referred to as Hb A_1c. Portrayals of girls may reflect their standing in the artists' culture, and a brief overview of different views of girls in different art periods gives a sense of girls' roles in societies around the world and at different points in time. To a small extent, hemoglobin A slowly combines with glucose at a certain location in the molecule.

The slang word "gal", as in "Buffalo gals won't you come out tonight", is a variant pronunciation of girl. King George III of the United Kingdom was probably the most famous porphyria sufferer. The word girl has many synonyms, including "belle", "chick", "doll", "gal", "lass" or "lassie", "maiden", and "miss". There is a group of genetic disorders, known as the porphyrias that are characterized by errors in metabolic pathways of heme synthesis. While outsiders might use "girl" or "girly" as a pejorative to refer to a gay male, within the gay community it is used as a term of endearment. Mutations in the globin chain are associated with the haemoglobinopathies, such as sickle-cell disease and thalassemia. Calling a male a girl often serves as a provocation to fight (see fighting words). In hemolysis (accelerated breakdown of red blood cells), associated jaundice is caused by the hemoglobin metabolite bilirubin, and the circulating hemoglobin can cause renal failure.

The more insulting "girly-boy", which originated in 1589 as "girle-boy", is used to indicate a weak or "sissy" male. Other anemias are rarer. Using the word "girl" to refer to a male is usually meant as insulting, such as "You throw like a girl". As absence of iron decreases heme synthesis, red blood cells in iron deficiency anemia are hypochromic (lacking the red hemoglobin pigment) and microcytic (smaller than normal). The term "young woman" is sometimes used in the period between childhood and full adulthood. Anemia has many different causes, although iron deficiency and its resultant iron deficiency anemia are the most common causes in the Western world. In modern usage, "girl" is properly restricted to mean a human female who has not reached adulthood, and some would restrict the usage to prepubescent girls. Decreased levels of hemoglobin, with or without an absolute decrease of red blood cells, leads to symptoms of anemia.

There is a parallel objection to use of the word "boy" to describe a male over the age of puberty. Improperly degraded haemoglobin protein or haemoglobin that has been released from the blood cells can clog small blood vessels especially the delicate blood filtering vessels of the kidneys, causing kidney damage. With the rise of feminism, the use of "girl" applied to any adult female became offensive to many, especially given the fact that the word was so often used to indicate low social status, low morals, weakness, or homosexuality. Increased levels of this chemical are detected in the blood if red cells are being destroyed more rapidly than usual. But social shifts generally permit only the female gender group themselves to use such terminology without giving offence. The major final product of haem degradation is bilirubin. Adult women will sometimes refer to themselves as "girls", as in "We're having a girls' night out" or "It's a girl thing". When the porphyrin ring is broken up, the fragments are normally secreted in the bile by the liver.

A woman of a certain age might be called a girl to suggest that she looked younger than she was, or a group of women might speak of themselves as "us girls", though all were well over the age of maidenhood. When red cells reach the end of their life due to aging or defects, they are broken down, and the haemoglobin molecule broken up and the iron recycled. In America today, the word "girl" is often used as an intended compliment or used humorously. As a result, fetal blood in the placenta is able to take oxygen from maternal blood. In England, the word "girl" was also used as a euphemism for "prostitute", as for example by Richard Steele in The Spectator. This means that the oxygen binding curve for fetal hemoglobin is left-shifted (i.e., a higher percentage of hemoglobin has oxygen bound to it at lower oxygen tension), in comparison to that of adult hemoglobin. In England, a "girl" was often a serving girl, while in America a "girl" was often a sweetheart or "girlfriend", for example, in the lyrics of the popular song "The Girl I Left Behind Me". A variant hemoglobin, called fetal hemoglobin (Hb F, α₂γ₂), is found in the developing fetus, and binds oxygen with greater affinity than adult hemoglobin.

By the 1700s, there was a difference in some uses of the word between England and the Americas. This phenomenon, where molecule Y affects the binding of molecule X to a transport molecule Z, is called a heterotropic allosteric effect. Note the parallel shift in the meaning of the word "maid". In people acclimated to high altitudes, the concentration of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) in the blood is increased, which allows these individuals to deliver a larger amount of oxygen to tissues under conditions of lower oxygen tension. In 1668, in his Diary, Samuel Pepys uses the word to mean a female servant of any age: "girl" = "serving girl". Nitrogen dioxide and nitrous oxide are capable of converting hemoglobin to methemoglobin. Within little more than a century, however, the word began to take on implications of social class. Oxidation to Fe⁺³ state converts hemoglobin into hemiglobin or methemoglobin which cannot bind oxygen.

There are manuscripts dating from 1530 in which the word "girl" is used to mean "maiden" (also originally applied to both genders), or any unmarried human female. The iron atom in the heme group must be in the Fe⁺² oxidation state to support oxygen transport. Like many other words that originally were not gender specific, "girl" gradually came to be used primarily and then exclusively for one gender. Hemoglobin also has competitive binding affinity for sulfur monoxide (SO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S). A male child was called a "Knave girl"; a female child was called a "gay girl". In heavy smokers, up to 20% of the oxygen-active sites can be blocked by CO. While there is no general agreement about the etymology of "girl", it is found in manuscripts dating from 1290 with the meaning "a child" (of either gender). When inspired air contains CO levels as low as 0.02% headache and nausea occur; if the CO concentration is increased to 0.1%, unconsciousness will follow.

The Anglo-Saxon word gyrela = "ornament" may have given rise to the modern pronunciation of "girl", if the change in meaning can be explained. When hemoglobin combines with CO, it forms a very bright-red compound called carboxyhemoglobin. The word "girl" first appears during the Middle Ages. Hemoglobin binding affinity for CO is 200 times greater than its affinity for oxygen, meaning that small amounts of CO dramatically reduces hemoglobin’s ability to transport oxygen. Relatively few girls become engineers, though in the USA, more do become doctors. CO competes with oxygen at the heme binding site. However, their choices afterwards in postsecondary school are often very different and lead them to less socially recognized professions. The binding of oxygen is affected by molecules such as carbon monoxide (CO) (for example from tobacco smoking, cars and furnaces).

Several studies, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment of the OECD, have shown that, in developed countries, girls usually obtain better scores than boys do in secondary schools in Literature and Language, boys on the other hand tend to score higher in mathematics. This control of hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen by the binding and release of carbon dioxide is known as the Bohr effect. This conflict is often called nature versus nurture. Conversely, when the carbon dioxide levels in the blood decrease (i.e., around the lungs), carbon dioxide is released, increasing the oxygen affinity of the protein. Some feminists deny this, but many feminists agree that both biology and upbringing have an influence on gender roles, with the question being the relative importance of each. Protons bind at various places along the protein and carbon dioxide binds at the alpha-amino group forming carbamate. The biological viewpoint of gender roles is not that all gender distinctions result from biology, but rather that biology has an influence. Hemoglobin can bind protons and carbon dioxide which causes a conformational change in the protein and facilitates the release of oxygen.

Due to the influence of (among others) Simone de Beauvoir's feminist works and Michel Foucault's reflections on sexuality, the idea that gender was unrelated to sex gained ground during the 1980s, especially in sociology and cultural anthropology. So blood with high carbon dioxide levels is also lower in pH (more acidic). On the other hand, feminists have argued that gender roles are the result of stereotypes and socialization rather than any innate biological differences. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to give bicarbonate, carbonic acid freed protons via the reaction, which is catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase:. Simon Baron-Cohen, a Cambridge University professor of psychology and psychiatry, argues that "the female brain is predominantly hard-wired for empathy, while the male brain is predominantly hard-wired for understanding and building systems.". Carbon dioxide occupies a different binding site on the hemoglobin. For example, the need to take care of offspring may have limited the females' freedom to hunt and to assume positions of power. Hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is decreased in the presence of carbon monoxide because both gases compete for the same binding sites on hemoglobin, carbon monoxide binding preferentially to oxygen.

The idea that differences in gender roles originate in differences in biology originates from 19th-century anthropology; more recently, sociobiology and evolutionary psychology have turned to this problem to explain those differences by treating them as evolutionary adaptations to a lifestyle of Paleolithic hunter-gatherer societies. This positive cooperative binding is achieved through steric conformational changes of the hemoglobin protein complex: When one subunit protein in hemoglobin becomes oxygenated, it induces a confirmation or structural arrangement change in the whole complex causing the other 3 subunits to gain an increased affinity for oxygen. The reasons for this perceived difference in the behavior of girls and boys are a controversial topic in both public debate and the sciences. As a consequence, the oxygen binding curve of hemoglobin is sigmoidal, or 'S'-shape, as opposed to the normal hyperbolic (noncooperative) curve. Girls, as a group, may be perceived as being more docile than boys, and as being less capable of rational decision making and more governed by emotional responses. The binding affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is increased by the oxygen saturation of the molecule. Sometimes boys are presumed to be more responsible than girls, except in the cases of caring for younger children, which is sometimes thought to be instinctual in girls. In the tetrameric form of normal adult hemoglobin, the binding of oxygen is a cooperative process.

Girls are less often encouraged to pursue sports, with the exception of those that might be considered "feminine," such as figure skating or gymnastics; or those considered "gender-neutral," such as tennis.^[1] They may be prevented from participating in many of the same activities that boys participate in at the same age, as a matter of protecting them from perceived outside dangers, such as boys and men, or anything that may cause physical injury. In adults:. Girls have traditionally been associated with playing with dolls and toy cooking and cleaning equipment, while boys have been associated with toys and games that require more physical activity or simulated violence, such as toy trucks, balls, and toy guns. In the fetus:. In almost all cultures, girls have been socialized into gender roles. In the embryo:. This disparity is targeted to end under the Millennium Development Goals and has closed substantially since 1990.^ . There are two kinds of contacts between the α and β chains: α₁β₁ and α₁β₂.

65%). The four polypeptide chains are bound to each other by salt bridges, hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interaction. 74% for boys) or secondary education (59% vs. Haemoglobin A is the most intensively studied of the haemoglobin molecules. Although the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights specifies that "primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all", girls are slightly less likely to be enrolled as students in primary (70% enrollment vs. Each subunit has a molecular weight of about 16,000 daltons, for a total molecular weight of the tetramer of about 64,000 daltons. From birth, girls are a slight minority due to both natural factors (the human sex ratio has been observed since the 1700s as approximately 1,050 boys for every 1,000 girls) and due to sex selection on the part of parents. The subunits are structurally similar and about the same size.

UNICEF, 2004) aged 18 or under in the world, for a total of more than one billion living girls. This is denoted as α₂β₂. There are 2.18 billion people (est. In adult humans, the most common haemoglobin type is a tetramer (which contains 4 subunit proteins) called haemoglobin A, consisting of two α and two β subunits non-covalently bound. . The iron atom can either be in the Fe²⁺ or Fe³⁺ state, but ferrihaemoglobin (Methaemoglobin) (Fe³⁺) cannot bind oxygen. Images of girls in art, literature, and popular culture often demonstrate assumptions about gender roles. Two additional bonds perpendicular to the plane on each side can be formed with the iron to form the fifth and sixth positions, one connected strongly to the protein, the other available for binding of oxygen.

An ongoing debate about the influences of nature versus nurture in shaping the behavior of girls and boys raises questions about whether the roles played by girls are the result of inborn differences or socialization. The iron atom is bonded equally to all four nitrogens in the center of the ring, which lie in one plane. Historically, girls faced discrimination and limitations on the roles they were expected to play in their societies, and the United Nations targeted discrimination in schooling to end by 2010. This iron atom is the site of oxygen binding. Usage in the sense of (romantic) "sweetheart" arose in the 17th century. A heme group consists of an iron atom held in a heterocyclic ring, known as a porphyrin. Subsequently, it was extended to refer also to mature but unmarried young women since the 1530s. This folding pattern contains a pocket which is suitable to strongly bind the heme group.

During the 14th century its sense was narrowed to specifically female children. Each individual protein chain arranges in a set of alpha-helix structural segments connected together in a "myoglobin fold" arrangment, so called because this arrangment is the same folding motif used in the heme/globin proteins. The English word from 1290 designated a child of either sex. Each subunit is composed of a protein chain tightly associated with a non-protein heme group. The age at which a female person transitions from girl to woman varies in different societies, typically the transition from adolescence to maturity is taken to occur in the late teens. The Haemoglobin molecule is an assembly of four globular protein subunits. A girl is a young female human, as opposed to a boy, a young male human. .

Mutations in the gene for the haemoglobin protein result in a group of hereditary diseases termed the hemoglobinopathies, the most common members of which are sickle-cell disease and thalassemia. The most common types of hemoglobin contains four such subunits. The name hemoglobin is the concatenation of heme and globin, reflecting the fact that each subunit of hemoglobin is a globular protein with an embedded heme (or haem) group; each heme group contains an iron atom, and this is responsible for the binding of oxygen. Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body, such as to the muscles, where it releases the oxygen load.

Hemoglobin or haemoglobin (frequently abbreviated as Hb) is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red cells of the blood in mammals and other animals. Haemoglobin F (α₂γ₂) - In adults Haemoglobin F is restricted to a limited population of red cells called F cells. Haemaglobin A₂ (α₂δ₂) - δ chain synthesis begins late in the third trimester and in adults, it has a normal level of 2.5%. Haemoglobin A (α₂β₂) (PDB 1BZ0) - The most common type.

Haemoglobin F (α₂γ₂) (PDB 1FDH). Haemoglobin Portland (ξ₂γ₂). Gower 2 (α₂ε₂) (PDB 1A9W). Gower 1 (ξ₂ε₂).