Constantine I (emperor)

. Elizabeth also adopted one of her mother's mottoes, Semper Eadem ("Always the Same").
. Whilst her Tudor predecessors had used a gold lion and a red dragon as heraldic supporters, Elizabeth used a gold lion and a gold dragon.
. Elizabeth's arms were the same as those used by Henry IV: Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England).

. Prior to that time she was referred to as Queen Elizabeth.

Some may find him difficult, he speaks the language of the professional scholar, but reading his works is certainly worth the time and effort. She has been retroactively known as Queen Elizabeth I since the accession of Elizabeth II in 1952. The Association of Ancient Historians has honored Ramsay MacMullen as being the finest ancient historian of the Roman Empire in our time. The supremacy phrase was never actually restored, and "etc." remained in the style, to be removed only in 1801. [3]. It was inserted into the style with a view to restoring the phrase "of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head", which had been added by Henry VIII but later removed by Mary I. [2]. Whilst most of the style matched the styles of her predecessors, Elizabeth I was the first to use "etc.".

After 312, he added maximus ("the greatest"), and after 325 replaced invictus ("unconquerable") with victor, as invictus reminded of Sol Invictus, the Sun God. Elizabeth I used the official style "Elizabeth, by the Grace of God, Queen of England, France and Ireland, Fidei defensor, etc.". 1- In the English language, Constantine's official Imperial title is Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Augustus, the blessed, the lucky, the unconquerable. "Majesty", which Henry VIII first used on a consistent basis, did not become exclusive until the reign of Elizabeth's successor, James I. Monmouth also said that Constantine was proclaimed "King of the Britons" at York, rather than Roman Emperor. Like her predecessors since Henry VIII, Elizabeth used the style "Majesty", as well as "Highness" and "Grace". It was indecorous, Geoffrey considered, that a king might have less-than-noble ancestors. In children's and young adults' fiction, Elizabeth's story is told in Elizabeth I, Red Rose of the House of Tudor, a book in the Royal Diaries series published by Scholastic, and also in Beware, Princess Elizabeth by Carolyn Meyer.

A daughter for King Cole had not previously figured in the lore, at least not as it has survived in writing, and this pedigree is likely to reflect Geoffrey's desire to create a continuous line of regal descent. Elizabeth's story is spliced with her mother's in Maxwell's book The Secret Diary of Anne Boleyn. Maxwell also writes of a fictional child Elizabeth and Dudley had in The Queen's Bastard. Decades ago, Margaret Irwin produced a trilogy based on Elizabeth's youth: Young Bess, Elizabeth, Captive Princess and Elizabeth and the Prince of Spain.. Geoffrey claimed that Helena, Constantine's mother, was actually the daughter of "King Cole", the mythical King of the Britons and eponymous founder of Colchester. They include: I, Elizabeth by Rosalind Miles, The Virgin's Lover and The Queen's Fool by Philippa Gregory, Queen of This Realm by Jean Plaidy, and Virgin: Prelude to the Throne by Robin Maxwell. 1136 during the reign of Stephen of England) is not considered a reliable source by modern historians. There have been many novels written about Elizabeth. His Historia Regum Britanniae (written ca. In television, the actresses Glenda Jackson (in the BBC drama series Elizabeth R in 1971, and the 1972 historical film Mary Queen of Scots) and Miranda Richardson (in the 1986 classic BBC sitcom Blackadder — a comic interpretation of Elizabeth known fondly as Queenie) both played the role with consummate talent, creating memorable (if wildly contrasting) portraits of Elizabeth I.

The English chronicler Geoffrey of Monmouth offered a genealogy of British kings that linked them to the Fall of Troy at the end of the Trojan War. The same year British actress Judi Dench won an Academy Award for her supporting performance as the Virgin Queen in the popular Shakespeare in Love, a performance of only eleven minutes (the shortest ever to win an Oscar). The last member of his dynasty was his nephew and son-in-law, Julian, who attempted to restore paganism. In 1998 Australian actress Cate Blanchett made her big break and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for her critically acclaimed performance in Elizabeth. He was succeeded by his three sons by Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans, who secured their hold on the empire with the murder of a number of relatives and supporters of Constantine. In recent years, the story of Elizabeth has been filmed more than ever. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to put an end to raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. Those who have made an impression in the role of Elizabeth in the last 100 years, have included French actress Sarah Bernhardt in Les Amours de la reine Élisabeth (1912), Florence Eldridge in Mary of Scotland (1936), Flora Robson in Fire Over England (1937) and The Lion Has Wings (1939), Bette Davis in The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex (1939) and The Virgin Queen (1955) and Jean Simmons in Young Bess (1953).

In fact, by 336, Constantine had actually reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia, which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. Notable portrayals of Queen Elizabeth in film and television have been plentiful; in fact, she is the most filmed British monarch. In addition to reuniting the empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni (306–308), the Franks again (313–314), the Visigoths in 332 and the Sarmatians in 334. Benjamin Britten wrote an opera, Gloriana, about the relationship between Elizabeth and Lord Essex, composed for the coronation of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Although he earned his honorific of "The Great" from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements alone. Elizabeth is often shown holding a sieve, a symbol of virginity. There was a singing of hymns." (New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908). Elizabeth was often painted in rich and stylised gowns.

At the dedication of Constantinople in 330 a ceremony half Pagan and half Christian was performed, in the market place, the Cross of Christ was placed over the head of the Sun-God's chariot. Many artists glorified Elizabeth I and masked her age in their portraits. Offensive forms of worship, either Christian or Pagan, were suppressed. As Sir Walter said in relation to her foreign policy, "Her Majesty did all by halves". These funds were given to the favored Christian clergy. In reality, however, she often wavered before coming to the aid of her Protestant allies. The repair of Pagan temples that had decayed was forbidden. She was depicted in later years as a great defender of Protestantism in Europe.

"From Pagan temples Constantine had his statue removed. Her achievements, however, were greatly magnified after her death. (MacMullen 1969,1984, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908). Elizabeth was also able to prevent the outbreak of a religious or civil war on English soil. Leading Roman families that refused Christianity were denied positions of power, yet two-thirds of his top government was non-Christian. Under her, England managed to avoid a crippling Spanish invasion. Constantine respected cultivation and Christianity, and his court was composed of older, respected, and honored men. Elizabeth was a successful monarch, helping steady the nation even after inheriting an enormous national debt from her sister Mary.

(MacMullen 1969, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908). Her problems in Ireland also serve to blemish her record. Some examples:. Elizabeth has also been criticised for supporting the English slave trade. Constantine's laws in many ways improved those of his predecessors, though they also reflect his more violent age. Though England achieved military victories, Elizabeth was far less pivotal than other monarchs such as Henry V. He began a large building program of churches in the Holy Land, which while greatly expanding the faith also allowed considerable increase in the power and wealth (and as such the corruption) of the clergy, as the clergy took over many aspects of government, including the courts and civil cases. Many historians, however, have taken a far more dispassionate view of Elizabeth's reign.

Exerting his absolute power, the army recited his composed Latin prayer in an attempt to convert them to Christianity, which failed. Elizabeth I was the winner, with 48 points. However, pagans still received appointments, even up to the end of his life. In 2005, in the History Channel documentary Britain's Greatest Monarch, a group of historians and commentators analysed twelve British monarchs[1] and gave them overall marks out of 60 for greatness (they were marked out of 10 in six categories, such as military prowess and legacy). The reason for this later "change of heart" remains conjectural. She placed seventh in the 100 Greatest Britons poll, which was conducted by the British Broadcasting Corporation in 2002, outranking all other British monarchs. His sermons preached harmony at first, but gradually turned more confrontational with the old pagan ways. Elizabeth proved to be one of the most popular monarchs in English or British history.

In his later life he even turned to preaching, giving his own sermons in the palace before his court and invited crowds. Accession Councils, rather than new Sovereigns, continue to issue proclamations in modern practice. Constantine also passed laws making the occupations of butcher and baker hereditary, and more importantly, supported converting the coloni (tenant farmers) into serfs — laying the foundation for European society during the Middle Ages. James I's proclamation broke precedent because it was issued not by the new Sovereign him or herself, but by a Council of Accession, as James was in Scotland at the time. (MacMullen 1969). James VI was proclaimed King of England as James I a few hours after Elizabeth's death. After his death it was renamed Constantinopolis (or Constantinople, "Constantine's City"), and gradually became the capital of the empire. In any event, none of the alternative heirs pressed their claims to the Throne.

Generations later there was the story that a Divine vision lead Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. There is no evidence to prove any of these tales. On the site of a temple to Aphrodite was built the new Basilica of the Apostles. Finally, a third legend suggests that she remained silent until her death. The figures of old gods were replaced and often assimilated into Christian symbolism. According to another, she said, "Who but a King could succeed a Queen?". He renamed the city Nova Roma (New Rome), providing it with a Senate and civic offices similar to the older Rome, and the new city was protected by the alleged True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics. According to one story, when asked whom she would name her heir, she replied, "Who could that be but my cousin Scotland?".

Constantine rebuilt the city of Byzantium which was said to have been founded by colonists from the Greek city of Megara under Byzas in 667 BC. It is sometimes claimed that Elizabeth named James her heir on her deathbed. This battle represented the passing of old Rome, and the beginnings of the Eastern Empire as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation. They included Edward Seymour, Baron Beauchamp (the illegitimate son of the Lady Catherine Grey) and William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby (Lady Anne Stanley's uncle). (MacMullen 1969). Still other claimants were possible. He was the sole emperor of the entire Roman Empire. If, however, the rules of male primogeniture were upheld, the successor would be James VI, King of Scots.

Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious. If the will were upheld, then Elizabeth would have been succeeded by Lady Anne Stanley. Constantine and his Franks marched under the Christian standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. The will of Henry VIII declared that Elizabeth was to be succeeded by the descendants of his younger sister, Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk, rather than by the Scottish descendants of his elder sister, Margaret Tudor. Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient faith of Paganism. The Latin inscription on their tomb translates to "Partners both in Throne and grave, here rest we two sisters, Elizabeth and Mary, in the hope of one resurrection". The armies were so large another like these would not be seen again until at least the 14th century. Elizabeth was buried in Westminster Abbey, immediately next to her sister Mary I.

It became a challenge to Constantine in the west, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. She died on 24 March at Richmond Palace at 69, at which age she was the oldest English Sovereign ever to reign; the mark was not surpassed until George II died in his seventy-seventh year in 1760. This was a puzzling inconsistency since Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius, was an influential Christian. Elizabeth I fell ill in February 1603, suffering from frailty and insomnia. In the year 320, Licinius, emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began another persecution of the Christians. During her last ailment, the Queen is reported to have declared that she had sent "wolves, not shepherds, to govern Ireland, for they have left me nothing to govern over but ashes and carcasses": see The Sayings of Queen Elizabeth (1925). He gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. After a devastating winter siege, Lord Mountjoy defeated both the Spanish and the Irish troops at the Battle of Kinsale; Lord Tyrone surrendered a few days after Elizabeth's death.

His victory in 312 over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge resulted in his becoming Western Augustus, or ruler of the entire Western Roman Empire. The Spanish, meanwhile, sent over 3,000 troops to aid the Irish, with the justification that intervention countered Elizabeth's previously aid to the Dutch rebels in their campaign against Spain. The large staring eyes will loom larger as the 4th century progresses: compare the early 5th century silver coinage of Theodosius I. Lord Mountjoy attempted to blockade Lord Tyrone's troops and starve them into submission; the campaign effectively cast the English strategy of the earlier Desmond Rebellion (1580-83) into a larger theatre, with proportionatley greater casualties. The great staring eyes in the iconography of Constantine, though not specifically Christian, show how official images were moving away from early imperial conventions of realistic portrayal towards schematic representations: the Emperor as Emperor, not merely as this particular individual Constantine, with his characteristic broad jaw and cleft chin. Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy was sent to Ireland to replace Lord Essex. Also, Eusebius was a close friend of Constantine's sister; she probably secured his recall from exile. In 1601, Lord Essex led a revolt against the Queen, but was executed.

As the general custom, Constantine was not baptized until close to his death in 337, when his choice fell upon the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, who happened, despite his being an overt ally of Arius, to still be the bishop of the region. He failed utterly, and returned to England without the Queen's permission in 1600, and was punished by the loss of all political offices. Helena became known later in life for numerous pilgrimages. One of the leading members of the navy, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and put in charge of the attempt to crush the Irish rebellion in 1599. Family influence is thought to account for a personal adoption of Christianity: Helena is said to be "probably born a Christian" though virtually nothing is known of her background, save that her mother was the daughter of an innkeeper and her father a successful soldier, a career that excluded overt Christians. In 1598, the Earl of Tyrone offered a truce; upon its expiry, the English suffered their worst defeat in Ireland at the Battle of the Yellow Ford. Their sources are not stated. Spain attempted to send two further Armadas, but both expeditions were foiled.

The rumours were reported however by 5th century historian Zosimus and 12th century historian Joannes Zonaras. Seeking to avoid further war, Elizabeth made a series of truces with the earl. There are rumours of step-mother and step-son having had an affair which caused Constantine's jealousy. The chief executor of Crown authority in the north of Ireland, Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone, was declared a traitor in 1595. (Crispus was the only known son of Constantine by his first wife Minervina). At the same time as England was fighting Spain, it also faced a rebellion in Ireland, known as the Nine Years War. In 326, Constantine executed first his eldest son Crispus and a few months later his own second wife Fausta. These reforms, however, were only superficial; the practice of deriving funds from the grants of monopolies continued.

Constantine was also known for being ruthless with his political enemies, deposing the Eastern Roman Emperor Licinius, his brother-in-law, by strangulation in 325 even though he had publicly promised not to execute him upon Licinius' surrender in 324. Shortly thereafter, twelve royal monopolies were ended by royal proclamation; further sanctions could be sought in the courts of common law. There are also coins depicting Apollo driving the chariot of the Sun on a shield Constantine is holding and another (313?) shows the Christian chi-rho on a helmet Constantine is wearing. In her famous "Golden Speech", Elizabeth promised reforms. In the 320s Constantine has a halo of his own. Elizabeth became somewhat unpopular because of her practice of granting royal monopolies the abolition of which Parliament continued to demand. The depiction represents Apollo with a solar halo, Helios-like, and the globe in his hands. His political mantle was inherited by his son, Robert Cecil, who had previously become Secretary of State in 1590.

Thereafter the reverses of his coinage were dominated for several years by his "companion, the unconquered Sol" -- the inscriptions read SOLI INVICTO COMITI. In 1598, Elizabeth's chief advisor, Lord Burghley, died. In mid-310, two years before the victory at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine reportedly experienced the publicly announced vision in which Apollo-Sol Invictus appeared to him with omens of success. In part because of the war, Raleigh and Gilbert's overseas colonisation attempts failed, and North American settlement thus did not proceed until James I negotiated peace in the Treaty of London, 1604. Gothicus had claimed the divine protection of Apollo-Sol Invictus. The Anglo-Spanish War, meanwhile, reached a stalemate after Philip II died later in the year. Historians however suspect this account to be a genealogical fabrication to flatter Constantine. Further battles continued until 1598, when France and Spain finally made peace.

The Augustan History of the 4th century reports Constantine's paternal grandmother Claudia to be a daughter of Crispus, Crispus being a reported brother of both Claudius II and Quintillus. England attempted to attack the Azores in 1597, but their plan was foiled. After his breach with his father's old colleague Maximian in 309–310, Constantine began to claim legitimate descent from the 3rd century emperor Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus, the hero of the Battle of Naissus (September, 268). Elizabeth sent a further 2,000 troops to France after the Spanish took Calais. Mars had been associated with the Tetrarchy, and Constantine's use of this symbolism served to emphasize the legitimacy of his rule. In 1596, England finally withdrew from France, with Henry IV firmly in control, and the Holy League, which opposed him, demolished. During the early part of Constantine's rule, representations first of Mars and then (from 310) of Apollo as Sun god consistently appear on the reverse of the coinage. They burnt some villages, seized supplies and then returned.

Coins struck for emperors often reveal details of their personal iconography. Also in 1595, a Spanish force under Don Carlos de Amesquita landed in Cornwall. For the next eighteen years, he fought a series of battles and wars of consolidation that first obtained him co-rule with the Eastern Roman Emperor, and then finally leadership of a reunified Roman Empire. In 1595 and 1596, a disastrous expedition on the Spanish Main led to the deaths of both Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake. Constantine managed to be at his deathbed in Eboracum (York) of Roman Britain, where the loyal general Crocus, of Alamannic descent, and the troops loyal to his father's memory proclaimed him an Augustus ("Emperor"). English privateers continued attacking Spanish treasure ships from the Americas; the most famous privateers included Sir John Hawkins and Sir Martin Frobisher. However, Constantius fell sick during an expedition against the Picts and Scots of Caledonia, and died on July 25, 306. Although Henry broke his promises and converted to Catholicism, Elizabeth remained beside him.

In 305, the Augustus, Maximian, abdicated, and Constantius succeeded to the position. Elizabeth sent 20,000 troops and subsidies of over £300,000 to Henry IV, and 8,000 troops and subsidies of over £1,000,000 to the Dutch. Young Constantine was well educated and served at the court of Diocletian in Nicomedia, after the appointment of his father as one of the two caesares(junior emperors) of the Tetrarchy in 293. The war was also waged in the Netherlands, which continued to fight for its independence from Spain, and France, where a Protestant, Henry IV, claimed the Throne. Theodora would give birth to six half-siblings of Constantine, including Julius Constantius. The battle, however, was not decisive, and war with Spain continued. His father left his mother around 292 to marry Flavia Maximiana Theodora, daughter or step-daughter of the Western Roman Emperor Maximian. The Armada was forced to return to Spain, sustaining severe losses on the north and west coasts of Ireland; the victory tremendously increased Elizabeth's popularity.

Constantine was born at Naissus, (today's Niš, Serbia, Serbia and Montenegro) in Upper Moesia, to Constantius I Chlorus, a general of Greek descent, and Flavia Iulia Helena, an innkeeper's daughter who at the time was an adolescent of only sixteen years. The Spanish plan was foiled by the English fleet under Charles Howard, 2nd Baron Howard of Effingham and Sir Francis Drake, aided by bad weather. . She famously declared, "I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a King, and of a King of England too". These actions are considered major factors in that religion's spread, and his reputation as the "first Christian Emperor" has been promulgated by historians from Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea to the present day. Elizabeth attempted to encourage her troops with a notable speech, known as the Speech to the Troops at Tilbury. Constantine is best remembered in modern times for the Edict of Milan in 313 and the Council of Nicaea in 325, which fully legalized and then legitimized Christianity in the Empire for the first time. In July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a grand fleet of 130 ships bearing over 30,000 men, set sail in the hopes of helping the Spanish army under the Duke of Parma in the Netherlands cross the English Channel and invade England.

Constantine is famed for his refounding of Byzantium (modern Istanbul) as "Nova Roma" (New Rome), which was popularly known in his time as "Constantine's City"— (Constantinopolis, Constantinople). In April 1587, Sir Francis Drake burnt the Spanish fleet at Cádiz, delaying Philip's plans. Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (Latin: IMP CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS ¹) (February 27, 272–May 22, 337), commonly known as Constantine I or Constantine the Great, was proclaimed Augustus by his troops on July 25, 306 and ruled an ever-growing portion of the Roman Empire until his death. In her will, Mary had left Philip her claim to the English Throne; under force of the threat from Elizabeth's policies in the Netherlands and the east Atlantic, Philip began making plans for an invasion. Rassias,"Es Edafos Ferein", 2nd edition, Athens, 2000, ISBN 960-7748-20-4. Mary Stuart was convicted of complicity in the plot and executed at Fotheringhay Castle on February 8, 1587. Vlassis R. However, a further scheme against Elizabeth, the Babington Plot, was revealed by Sir Francis Walsingham, who headed the English spy network.

Marcus Cornelius Fronto, Letters of Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Fearing such conspiracies, Parliament had passed the Act of Association 1584, under which anyone associated with a plot to murder the Sovereign would be excluded from the line of succession. Galen, On the Natural Faculties. This, together with economic conflict with Spain and English piracy against Spanish colonies, led to the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War in 1585 and in 1586 the Spanish ambassador was expelled from England for his participation in conspiracies against Elizabeth. Sources on the Antonine Plague