Bone

There are also names for specific parts of long bones. Small amounts of butter contain only traces of lactose, so moderate consumption of butter is not generally a problem for those with lactose intolerance.^[22] People with milk allergies do need to avoid butter, which does contain enough of the allergy-causing proteins to cause reactions.^[23]. The joints can be affected by arthritis. In recent decades, though, it has become accepted that the trans fats contained in hydrogenated margarines significantly raise "bad" LDL cholesterol levels, possibly to a worse extent than butter. Other illnesses are for example osteoporosis and bone cancer (osteosarcoma). For many years, vegetable margarine was recommended as a substitute, since it is an unsaturated fat and contains little or no cholesterol. Bones heal by natural processes, but untended and unsupported can lead to misgrown bone. For these reasons, butter has been generally considered to be a contributor to health problems, especially heart disease.

One of the most common bone illnesses is a bone fracture. According to USDA figures, one tablespoon of butter (14 grams) contains 100 calories, all from fat, 11 grams of fat, of which 7 grams are saturated fat, and 30 milligrams of cholesterol.^[21] In other words, butter consists mostly of saturated fat and is a significant source of dietary cholesterol. It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's piezoelectric properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress. Pastry makers often chill all their ingredients and utensils while working with a butter dough. Repeated stress results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress. Butter, because of its flavor, is a common choice for the fat in such a dough, but it can be more difficult to work with than shortening because of its low melting point. Its purpose is the release of calcium and the repair of micro-damaged bones (from everyday stress). During baking, the fat melts away, leaving a flaky texture.

Remodeling is the process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape and occurs throughout a person's life. Pastries like pie dough incorporate pieces of solid fat into the dough, which become flat layers of fat when the dough is rolled out. In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the flat bones of the skull, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones. Some cookies like shortbread may have no other source of moisture but the water in the butter. In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow (or hemopoietic marrow), but as the child ages it is mostly replaced by yellow marrow (or fatty marrow). The tiny bubbles locked within the butter expand in the heat of baking and aerate the cookie or cake. Marrow can be found in most any bone that holds cancellous tissue. Many cookie doughs and some cake batters are leavened, at least in part, by creaming butter and sugar together, which introduces air bubbles into the butter.

The diaphyses and the epiphyses of long bones remain separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the metaphysis) until the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), whereupon the cartilage ossifies, fusing the two together (epiphyseal closure). Butter fills several roles in baking, where it is used in a similar manner as other solid fats like lard, suet, or shortening, but has a flavor that may better complement sweet baked goods. Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones. The actual smoke point of butterfat is around 200 °C (400 °F), so clarified butter or ghee is better suited to frying.^[20] Ghee has always been a common frying medium in India, where many avoid other animal fats for cultural or religious reasons. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones. Butter is used for sautéing and frying, although its milk solids brown and burn above 150 °C (250 °F)—a rather low temperature for most applications. Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. Beurre monté (prepared butter) is an unflavored beurre blanc made from water instead of vinegar or wine; it lends its name to the practice of "mounting" a sauce with butter: whisking cold butter into any water-based sauce at the end of cooking, giving the sauce a thicker body and a glossy shine—as well as a buttery taste.^[19].

The formation of bone occurs by two methods: intramembranous and endochondral ossification. Beurre blanc (white butter) is made by whisking butter into reduced vinegar or wine, forming an emulsion with the texture of thick cream. Other factors present include GAGs, osteocalcin, osteonectin, bone sialo protein and Cell Attachment Factor. Hollandaise and béarnaise sauces are stabilized with the powerful emulsifiers in the egg yolks, but butter itself contains enough emulsifiers—mostly remnants of the fat globule membranes—to form a stable emulsion on its own. Also making up the organic part of matrix include various growth factors, the functions of which are not fully known. Hollandaise and béarnaise sauces are emulsions of egg yolk and melted butter; they are in essence mayonnaises made with butter instead of oil. It then associates into fibrils. Beurre noisette (hazel butter) and Beurre noir (black butter) are sauces of melted butter cooked until the milk solids and sugars have turned golden or dark brown; they are often finished with an addition of vinegar or lemon juice.

This is made intracellularly as tropocollagen and then exported. Melted butter plays an important role in the preparation of sauces, most obviously in French cuisine. The organic part of matrix is mainly Type I collagen. Sweetened composed butters can be served with desserts; such hard sauces are often flavored with spirits. The vesicles then rupture and act as a centre for crystals to grow on. Composed butters can be used as spreads, or cooled, sliced, and placed onto hot food to melt into a sauce. This cleaves phosphate groups and acts as the foci for calcium and phosphate deposition. Once butter is softened, spices, herbs, or other flavoring agents can be mixed into it, producing what is called a composed butter or composite butter.

Mineralisation involves osteoblasts secreting vesicles containing alkaline phosphatase. This allows butter to be safely stored on the countertop for several days without spoilage. The matrix is initially laid down as unmineralized osteoid (manufactured by osteoblasts). The water acts as a seal to keep the butter fresh, and also keeps the butter from overheating in hot temperatures. The inorganic is mainly crystalline mineral salts and calcium, which is present in the form of hydroxyapatite. Butter is packed into the lid. It has inorganic and organic parts. Usually the dish holds just enough water to submerge the interior lip when the dish is closed.

The matrix comprises the other major constituent of bone. "French butter dishes" or "Acadian butter dishes" involve a lid with a long interior lip, which sits in a container holding a small amount of water. The iteration of remodeling events at the cellular level is influential on shaping and sculpting the skeleton both during growth as well as after. Wrapped butter has a shelf life of several months at refrigerator temperatures.^[18]. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts, coupled together via paracrine cell signalling, are referred to as bone remodeling units. Until recently, many refrigerators sold in New Zealand featured a "butter conditioner", a compartment kept warmer than the rest of the refrigerator—but still cooler than room temperature—with a small heater.^[17] Keeping butter tightly wrapped delays rancidity, which is hastened by exposure to light or air, and also helps prevent it from picking up other odors. These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations and are known as bone turnover, or remodeling. The "butter compartment" found in many refrigerators may be one of the warmer sections inside, but it still leaves butter quite hard.

As bone formation actively fixes circulating calcium in its mineral form, resorption actively unfixes it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. Normal butter softens to a spreadable consistency around 15 °C (60 °F), well above refrigerator temperatures. This process, called bone resorption, allows stored calcium to be released into systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. It can take several hours of churning to produce workable butter grains from fermented milk.^[16]. Upon arrival active enzymes, such as acid phosphatase, are secreted against the mineral substrate. In African and Asian developing nations, butter is traditionally made from sour milk rather than cream. Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. It consists of tea served with intensely flavored — or "rancid"—yak butter and salt.

Because the osteoclasts are derived from a monocyte stem-cell lineage, they are equipped with engulfment strategies similar to circulating macrophages. Butter tea is consumed in the Himalayan regions of Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal and India. These lacunae, or resorption pits, are left behind after the breakdown of bone and often present as scalloped surfaces. Yak butter is important in Tibet; tsampa, barley flour mixed with yak butter, is a staple food. Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells located on bone surfaces in what are called Howship's lacunae. Smen is a spiced Moroccan clarified butter, buried in the ground and aged for months or years. If osteoblasts can be described as bone forming cells, the osteoclasts can be described as bone destroying cells. Around the world can be found many types of butter.

They possibly act as mechano-sensory receptors—regulating the bones' response to stress. New Zealand, Australia, and the Ukraine are among the few nations that export a significant percentage of the butter they produce.^[15]. Their functions include to varying degrees: formation of bone, matrix maintenance and calcium homeostasis. Most nations produce and consume the bulk of their butter domestically. Osteocytes have many processes which reach out to meet osteoblasts probably for the purposes of communication. In terms of consumption, Germany was second after India, using 578,000 tons of butter in 1997, followed by France (528,000), Russia (514,000), and the United States (505,000). The space which they occupy is known as a lacuna. Second in production was the United States (522,000 tons), then France (466,000), Germany (442,000), and New Zealand (307,000).

However, osteocytes do originate from osteoblasts which have migrated into and become trapped and surrounded by bone matrix which they themselves produce. In 1997, India produced 1,470,000 metric tons of butter, consuming almost all of it. They are flattened, mononucleate cells which line bone. India produces and consumes more butter than any other nation, dedicating almost half of its annual milk production to making butter or ghee. They function as a barrier for certain ions, induced osteogenetic cells. and most other nations that track such data.^[14]. Bone Lining Cells (BLCs) share a common lineage with osteogenesis (bone forming) cells. In the United States, margarine consumption overtook butter during the 1950s^[13] and it is still the case today that more margarine than butter is eaten in the U.S.

They contain alkaline phosphatase—a chemical which has a role in the mineralisation of bone. Per capita butter consumption declined in most western nations during the 20th century, in large part because of the rising popularity of margarine, which is less expensive and, until recent years, was perceived as being healthier. Active osteoblasts are situated on the surface of osteoid seams and communicate with each other via gap-junctions. By 1900, more than half the butter produced in the United States was factory made; Europe followed suit shortly after. Osteoblasts are mononucleate. Soon, though, cream-separation technology became small and inexpensive enough to introduce an additional efficiency: the separation was accomplished on the farm, and the cream alone shipped to the factory. They are located near to the surface of bone and their functions are to make osteoid and manufacture hormones such as prostaglandin which act on bone itself. Initially, whole milk was shipped to the butter factories, and the cream separation took place there.

Osteoblasts are typically viewed as bone forming cells. This dramatically sped the butter-making process by eliminating the slow step of letting cream naturally rise to the top of milk. Bone Heads include osteoblasts, so called Bone Lining Cells, osteocytes and osteoclasts. In the late 1870s, the centrifugal cream separator was introduced, marketed most successfully by Swedish engineer Carl Gustaf Patrik de Laval. All bones consist of living cells embedded in a mineralised organic matrix that makes up the main bone material. The first butter factories appeared in the United States in the early 1860s, after the successful introduction of cheese factories a decade earlier. vertebrae). Until the 19th century, the vast majority of butter was made by hand, on farms.

Irregular bones are bones which do not conform to any of the previous forms (e.g. The first margarine was beef tallow flavored with milk and worked like butter; vegetable margarines followed after the development of hydrogenated oils around 1900. the skull and ribs) consist of two layers of compact bone with a zone of cancellous bone sandwiched between them. In 1869, a French chemist claimed the prize with the invention of margarine. Flat bones (e.g. By the 1860s, butter had become so in demand in France that Emperor Napoleon III offered prize money for an inexpensive substitute to supplement France's inadequate butter supplies. finger bones) have a similar structure to long bones, except that they have no medullar cavity. France, like Ireland, became well-known for its butter, particularly in the Normandy and Brittany regions.

Short bones (e.g. Firkins of such buried butter are a common archaeological find in Ireland; the Irish National Museum has some containing "a grayish cheese-like substance, partially hardened, not much like butter, and quite free from putrefaction." The practice was most common in Ireland in the 11th to 14th centuries; it ended entirely before the 19th century.^[12]. In children, the bones are filled with red marrow, which is gradually replaced with yellow marrow as the child ages. Such "bog butter" would develop a strong flavor as it aged, but remain edible, in large part because of the unique cool, airless, antiseptic and acidic environment of a peat bog. The extremities of the bone are called the epiphyses and are mostly cancellous bone covered by a relatively thin cortical of compact bone. Across far-northern Europe—Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, and Scandinavia—butter was sometimes treated in a manner unheard-of today: it was packed into barrels (firkins) and buried in peat bogs, perhaps for years. Surrounding the medullar cavity is a thin layer of cancellous bone that also contains marrow. Bread and butter became common fare among the new middle class, and the English, in particular, gained a reputation for their liberal use of melted butter as a sauce for meats and vegetables.^[11].

The central shaft of a long bone is called the diaphysis, and has a hollow middle—the medullar cavity filled with bone marrow. It slowly became more accepted by the upper class, especially when, in the early 16th century, the Roman Catholic Church permitted its consumption during Lent. the tibia). Scandinavia has the longest history in Europe of a butter export trade, dating at least to the 12th century.^[10] Across most of Europe after the fall of Rome and through much of the Middle Ages, butter was a common food, but one with a low reputation; it was consumed principally by peasants. Long bones are tubular in structure (e.g. Cooler climates in northern Europe allowed butter to be kept longer before spoiling. Woven bone is often replaced by lamellar bone as growth continues. Since India's prehistory, ghee has been both a staple food and used for ceremonial purposes such as fueling holy lamps and funeral pyres.

In contrast lamellar bone has parallel fibres and is much stronger. The tale of the child Krishna stealing butter remains a popular children's story in India today. It is so called because its fibres are aligned at random, and as a result has low strength. Ghee is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as a typical trade article around the 1st century CE Arabian Sea, and Roman geographer Strabo describes it as a commodity of Arabia and Sudan.^[9] In India, ghee has been a symbol of purity and an offering to the gods—especially Agni, the Hindu god of fire—for more than 3000 years; references to ghee's sacred nature appear numerous times in the Rig Veda, circa 1500–1200 BCE. Woven bone is put down rapidly during growth or repair. Historian and linguist Andrew Dalby says that most references to butter in ancient Near Eastern texts should actually be translated instead as ghee. Bone can also be either woven or lamellar. A play by the Greek comic poet Anaxandrides refers to Thracians as boutyrophagoi, "butter-eaters".^[7] Pliny's Natural History calls butter "the most delicate of food among barbarous nations", and goes on to describe its medicinal properties.^[8].

Cancellous bone is trabecular (honeycomb structure), it has a relatively high surface area, but forms a smaller portion of the skeleton. The people of ancient Greece and Rome seemed to consider butter a food fit more for the northern barbarians. Cortical bone makes up a large portion of skeletal mass; but, because of its density, it has a low surface area. In the warm Mediterranean climate, unclarified butter would spoil very quickly— unlike cheese, it was not a practical method of preserving the benefits of milk. Cortical (outer layer) bone is compact; the two terms are often used interchangeably. Butter was certainly known in the classical Mediterranean civilizations, but it does not seem to have been a common food, especially in Ancient Greece or Rome. Bone can be either compact or cancellous (spongy). It is then hung with ropes on a tripod of sticks and rocked to and fro until the butter is formed.

Bone has an internal mesh-like structure, the density of which may vary at different points. A goat skin is half filled with milk, then inflated with air and sealed. While bone is essentially brittle, it does have a degree of significant elasticity contributed by its organic components (chiefly collagen). The earliest butter would have been from sheep or goat's milk; cattle are not thought to have been domesticated for another thousand years or so.^[6] An ancient method of butter making, still used today in some parts of Africa and the Near East, is shown in the photo at right, taken in Palestine. It has relatively high compressive strength but poor tensile strength. Since even accidental agitation can turn cream into butter, it is likely that the invention of butter goes back to the earliest days of dairying, perhaps in the Mesopotamian area between 9000 and 8000 BCE. Bone is a relatively hard and lightweight composite material, formed mostly of calcium phosphate in the chemical arrangement termed calcium hydroxyapatite. Because of this, ghee can keep for six to eight months under normal conditions.^[5].

In the Stone Age bone was used to manufacture art, weapons, needles, etc. This process flavors the ghee, and also produces antioxidants which help protect it longer from rancidity. Ground cattle bone is sometimes used as fertilizer. Ghee is clarified butter which is brought to higher temperatures (120 °C/250 °F) once the water has cooked off, allowing the milk solids to brown. Cut and polished bone from a variety of animals is sometimes used as material for jewelry and other crafts. At the top, whey proteins form a skin which is removed, and the resulting butterfat is then poured off from the mixture of water and casein proteins that settle to the bottom. The interaction between bone and muscle is studied in biomechanics. Clarified butter is made by heating butter to its melting point and then allowing it to cool off; after settling, the remaining components separate by density.

Bones connect at joints by ligaments. Clarified butter is butter with almost all of its water and milk solids removed, leaving almost-pure butterfat. Long bones can be connected to muscles via tendons. European-style butters generally have a higher ratio of up to 85% butterfat. . In the United States, all products sold as "butter" must contain a minimum of 80% butterfat by weight; most American butters contain only slightly more than that, averaging around 81%. The bones are then cleaned by hand, usually with a toothbrush and a degreaser. Another important aspect of production is the amount of butterfat in the finished product.

Maceration is done by boiling fleshed bone with dish detergent and a little bleach until all large particles are off. In addition to flavoring the butter, the addition of salt also acts as a preservative. Bones can be prepared for study by several methods, such as maceration. Nations that favor sweet cream butter tend to favor salted butter as well, possibly reflecting the blander taste of uncultured butter. Bones and skeletons are studied in osteology. Salted butters have either fine, granular salt or a strong brine added to them during the working. These evolutionary solutions are not completely functionally analogous to bone. All categories of butter are sold in both salted and unsalted forms.

There are several evolutionary alternatives to bone. Whipped butter, another product designed to be more spreadable, is aerated via the incorporation of nitrogen gas— normal air is not used, as doing so would encourage oxidation and rancidity. True bone is present in bony fish (Osteichthyes) and all tetrapods. Some modify the makeup of the butter's fat through chemical manipulation of the finished product, some through manipulation of the cattle's feed, and some by incorporating vegetable oils into the butter. In common parlance, cartilage can also be called "bone", certainly when referring to animals that only have cartilage as hard connective tissue, such as cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes) like sharks. Several spreadable butters have been developed; these remain softer at colder temperatures and are therefore easier to use directly out of refrigeration. Bone has a different composition than cartilage, and both are derived from mesoderm. Raw cream butter is virtually unheard-of in the United States, and is rare in Europe as well.^[4].

The bones of an animal are, collectively, known as the skeleton. Because of this, cultured butter is sometimes labeled European-style butter in the United States. Bones support body structures, protect internal organs, and (in conjunction with muscles) facilitate movement; are also involved with cell formation, calcium metabolism, and mineral storage. Cultured butter is the most common type of butter in continental Europe, while sweet cream butter dominates in the United States and the United Kingdom. Bone, also called osseous tissue, (Latin: "os") is a type of hard endoskeletal connective tissue found in many vertebrate animals. Raw cream butter has a "cleaner" cream flavor, without the cooked-milk notes that pasteurization introduces. Endochondral ossification occurs in long bones, such as limbs; the bone is formed from cartilage. Production of sweet cream butter first became common in the 19th century, with the development of refrigeration and the mechanical cream separator.^[3] Butter made from fresh or cultured unpasteurized cream is called raw cream butter.

Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the skull; the bone is formed from mesenchyme tissue. Butter made from pasteurized fresh cream is called sweet cream butter. Porifera (sponges) possess simple endoskeletons that consist of calcareous or siliceous spicules and a spongin fiber network. Today, dairy products are often pasteurized during production to kill pathogenic bacteria and other microbes. A true endoskeleton (that is, protective tissue derived from mesoderm) is also present in Echinoderms. A similar and even more efficient method is to add lactic acid and flavor compounds directly to the fresh-cream butter; while this more efficient process simulates the taste of cultured butter, the product produced is not considered real cultured butter. Exoskeletal protection is offered by shells, carapaces (consisting of calcium compounds or silica) and chitinous exoskelotons. For manufacturers, this method is more efficient since aging the cream used to make butter takes significantly more space than simply storing the finished butter product.

Using this method, the cultured butter flavor grows as the butter is aged in cold storage. Another method for producing cultured butter, developed in the 1970s, is to produce butter from fresh cream and then incorporate bacterial cultures and lactic acid. The fermentation produces additional aroma compounds, including diacetyl, which makes for a fuller-flavored and more "buttery" tasting product.^[2] Today, cultured butter is usually made from pasteurized cream whose fermentation is produced by the introduction of Lactococcus and Leuconostoc bacteria. During fermentation, the cream naturally sours as bacteria convert milk sugars into lactic acid.

Butter made from a fermented cream is known as cultured butter. Before modern factory butter making, cream was usually collected from several milkings and was therefore several days old and somewhat fermented by the time it was made into butter. Butter becomes rancid when these chains break down into smaller components, like butyric acid and diacetyl. It is a triglyceride, an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acid groups.

Butterfat consists of many moderate-sized, saturated hydrocarbon chain fatty acids. Commercial butter is about 80% butterfat and 15% water; traditionally-made butter may have as little as 65% fat and 30% water. This consolidates the butter into a solid mass and breaks up embedded pockets of buttermilk or water into tiny droplets. Then the grains are "worked": pressed and kneaded together.

The buttermilk is drained off; sometimes more buttermilk is removed by rinsing the grains with water. This watery liquid is buttermilk—although the buttermilk most common today is instead a directly fermented skimmed milk. Churning produces small butter grains floating in the water-based portion of the cream. The jagged crystals of fat inflict damage upon the fat globule membranes during churning, speeding the butter-making process.

Before it is churned, the cream is cooled to about 5 °C (40 °F) and allowed to remain at that temperature for at least eight hours; under these conditions about half the butterfat in the cream crystallizes. Almost all commercially-made butter today starts with pasteurized cream, usually heated to a relatively high pasteurization temperature above 80 °C (180 °F). In finished butter, different proportions of these three forms result in different consistencies: butters with many crystals are harder than butters dominated by free fats. Butter contains fat in three separate forms: free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules.

Variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to come together and separate from the other parts of the cream. These globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids (fatty acid emulsifiers) and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in the form of microscopic globules.

. This may have been a construction meaning "cow-cheese" (bous "ox, cow" + tyros "cheese"), or the word may have been borrowed from another language, possibly Scythian.^[1] The root word persists in the butyric acid found in rancid butter and other rancid dairy products. The word butter, in the English language, derives (via Germanic languages) from the Latin butyrum, borrowed from the Greek boutyron. In general use, the term "butter", unqualified, almost always refers to the dairy product.

Other fats solid at room temperature are also known as "butters"; examples include cocoa butter and shea butter. The term "butter" is used in the names of products made from puréed nuts or peanuts, such as peanut butter, or from fruits, such as apple butter. The color of the butter depends on the animal's feed and is sometimes manipulated with food colorings, most commonly annatto or carotene. The color of butter is generally a pale yellow, but can vary from deep yellow to nearly white.

A firm solid when refrigerated, butter softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature and melts to a thin liquid consistency at 32–35 °C (90–95 °F). Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat. Salt, flavorings, or preservatives are sometimes added to butter. The most common form of butter is made from cows' milk, but butter can also be made from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks.

Butter consists of butterfat surrounding minuscule droplets consisting mostly of water and milk proteins. Butter is used as a spread, as a condiment and in cooking applications such as baking, sauce making, and frying. In many parts of the world, butter is an everyday food. Butter is a dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk.

Also available in print from Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521098432 (accessed November 28, 2005). Google Print. The Agricultural Systems of the World: An Evolutionary Approach, 196-198.

(Nov 7, 1974). Grigg, David B. ISBN 92-5-102899-0. Full text online. The technology of traditional milk products in developing countries, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

et al (1990). Crawford, R.J.M. Retrieved November 21, 2005. WebExhibits' Butter pages.

Michael Douma (editor). Also available in print from Routledge (UK). ISBN 0415232597 (accessed November 16, 2005). Google Print.

Food in the Ancient World from A to Z, 65. Dalby, Andrew (2003). ISBN 0-684-80001-2. pp 33-39, "Butter and Margarine". On Food and Cooking (Revised Edition), Scribner.

McGee, Harold (2004). Retrieved 27 November 2005. Milk Allergy & Intolerance. ^  Allergy Society of South Africa.

^  From data here, one teaspoon of butter contains 0.03 grams of lactose; a cup of milk contains 400 times that amount. Retrieved 27 November 2005. ^  Data from nutritiondata.com. 37.

^  McGee p. 36 (beurre noisette and beurre noir), 632 (beurre blanc and beurre monté), and 635–636 (hollandaise and béarnaise). ^  Sauce information from McGee, pp. ^  According to joyofbaking.com, unsalted butter can last for up to three months and salted butter up to five.

The feature has been phased out for energy conservation reasons. Retrieved 27 November 2005. ^  Bring back butter conditioners. Retrieved 28 November 2005.

1: Butter. ^  Crawford et al, part B, section III, ch. Note that the export and import figures do not include trade between nations within the European Union, and that there are inconsistencies regarding the inclusion of clarified butterfat products (explaining why New Zealand is shown exporting more butter in 1997 than was produced). Retrieved 1 December 2005.

Dairy: Word Markets and Trade. ^  Statistics from USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (1999). Retrieved 4 December 2005. ^  See for example this chart from International Margarine Association of the Countries of Europe statistics.

Eating less butter, and more fat. ^  Web Exhibits: Butter. Ancient Firkins. ^  Web Exhibits: Butter.

33, "Ancient, Once Unfashionable". ^  McGee p. Ancient Firkins. ^  Web Exhibits: Butter.

65. ^  Dalby p. Book 28, chapter 35. ^  Bostock and Riley translation.

65. ^  Dalby p. 10. ^  Dates from McGee p.

37. ^  McGee p. 34. ^  McGee p.

33. ^  McGee p. 35. ^  McGee p.

Retrieved 27 November 2005. ^  Douglas Harper's Online Etymology Dictionary entry for butter.