Atom

Sometime between the 5th century BC and 1st century CE, Buddhist and Jaina philosophers in ancient India also began developing atomic theories (see Indian atomism). The subject matter of the post-touring songs branched out as well, as all manner of subjects were introduced, from home repair and circuses to nonsense songs and others defying description. For instance, the atoms of a liquid were thought to be smooth, allowing them to slide over each other. They had already shown a clear trend towards progressively greater complexity in technique and style but this accelerated noticeably in their Revolver album. (See atomism for more details.) The Greeks believed that atoms were all made of the same material but had different shapes and sizes, which determined the physical properties of the material. Reportedly stung by criticism of "Paperback Writer", The Beatles poured their creative energies into the recording studio. Democritus and Leucippus, Greek philosophers in the 5th century BC, presented the first theory of atoms. The decision to stop touring in 1966 caused an abrupt change in musical direction.

The seeding of the interstellar medium by heavy elements eventually allowed the formation of terrestrial planets like the Earth. Throughout their career The Beatles' songs were rarely riff (or ostinato)-driven; "Day Tripper" (1965) and "Hey Bulldog" (1969, recorded 1968) are among the notable exceptions. These stars fused heavier elements through stellar nucleosynthesis during their lives and through supernova nucleosynthesis as they died. Later Beatles material shifted away from dance music and the pace of the songs is often more moderate, with interest tending to come from melody and harmonic texture rather than the rhythm ("Penny Lane" from 1967 is an example). After Big Bang nucleosynthesis, no heavier elements could be created until the formation of the first stars. As evidenced by his first Beatles vocal performance (their cover of Buck Owens' "Act Naturally"), Starr was a dedicated country music fan and was largely responsible for the group's occasional forays into the genre in songs such as "What Goes On" (1965) and "Don't Pass Me By" (1968). These photons are still detectable today in the cosmic microwave background. Three of these were immortalised in the songs "A Hard Day's Night", "Eight Days A Week" and "Tomorrow Never Knows".

This allows most of the photons in the universe to travel unimpeded for billions of years. In addition to his skilled (and arguably underrated) drumming and his comical everyman image, he was also a considerable influence on Lennon's songwriting due to his quirky and often amusing turns of phrase. Once atoms become neutral, they only absorb photons of a discrete absorption spectrum. Ringo Starr rarely wrote songs, but he possessed a gentle, somewhat comic baritone; his best-known vocal performances are "Yellow Submarine" (1966), "With A Little Help From My Friends" (1967) and "Octopus's Garden" (1969). This process is called recombination, during which the first neutral atoms took form. His later guitar style, while not displaying the virtuosity of Jimi Hendrix or Eric Clapton, was distinctive with its use of clear melodic lines and subtle fills as in "Something" (1969) and "Let It Be" (1970), contrasting with the increasingly distorted riffs and rapid-fire guitar solo work of his contemporaries. It was then cool enough to allow the nuclei to capture electrons. Harrison retained Western musical forms in his later compositions, emerging as a significant pop composer in his own right, although occasionally reprising major themes indicating his relationship with Hindustani music and the Hindu god Krishna.

Big Bang chronology of the atom continues to approximately 379,000 years after the Big Bang when the cosmic temperature had dropped to just 3,000 K. Harrison's interest in Indian music was an important influence on the popularisation of the so-called world music genre in the years that followed. However, although nuclei (fully-ionized atoms) were created, neutral atoms themselves could not form in the intense heat. Indian music and culture also influenced Lennon and McCartney, with the use of swirling tape loops, droning bass lines and mantra-like vocals on "Tomorrow Never Knows" (1966) and "Dear Prudence" (1968). Hydrogen makes up approximately 75% of the atoms in the universe; helium makes up 24%; and all other elements make up just 1%. His long collaboration with Sri Ravi Shankar, a famous Hindustani Musician, influenced several of his compositions, some of which were based on Hindustani forms — most notably "Love You To" (1966), "Within You Without You" (1967) and "The Inner Light" (1968). During this process, nuclei of hydrogen and helium formed abundantly, but almost no elements heavier than lithium. In 1965 Harrison broke new ground in pop by playing an Indian sitar on "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)".

In models of the Big Bang, Big Bang nucleosynthesis predicts that within one to three minutes of the Big Bang almost all atomic material in the universe was created. "All My Loving" (1963) and "She's a Woman" (1964) are prime examples of Harrison's early rockabilly-influenced guitar work. This was produced at CERN in the ATHENA and ATRAP experiments using the Antiproton Decelerator. George Harrison derived his early guitar style from 1950s rockabilly figures such as Carl Perkins, Scotty Moore (who worked with Elvis Presley) and Duane Eddy, but his single biggest influence as a guitarist came from country guitar legend Chet Atkins. Since antimatter is very difficult to produce and store, only a small amount antihydrogen has ever existed on Earth. McCartney's lyrical style evolved a more detached, literary stance than in the increasingly personal and confessional work of Lennon, and Lennon was reported to have become more critical of McCartney's writing in the mid-Sixties. Antimatter can also form atoms, composed of positrons, antiprotons, and antineutrons. "Helter Skelter" (1968), arguably an early heavy metal song, is also a McCartney composition.

When electrons deep inside large atoms are knocked out (for example by beta radiation), replacement atoms fall deep into the electric potential of the nucleus, producing high-energy x-rays. McCartney retained his affection for the driving R&B of Little Richard in a series of songs Lennon dubbed "potboilers", from "I Saw Her Standing There" (1963) to "Lady Madonna" (1968). For example, the hyperfine transitions (including the important 21 cm line) produce low-energy radio waves. His interest in the music of Bach led him to use a piccolo trumpet in his arrangement of "Penny Lane" and, although the Mellotron at the start of "Strawberry Fields Forever" belonged to Lennon, it was McCartney who played it. Not all parts of the atomic spectrum are in visible light part of the electromagnetic spectrum. He also created many of the tape loops used on "Tomorrow Never Knows" and experimented extensively with musique concrete techniques and electronic instruments both at home and in the studio, as well as creating many experimental audiovisual works. Due to the distinctive spectral lines that each element produces, they are able to tell the chemical composition of distant planets, stars and nebulae. Beginning with his evocative but understated use of a string quartet on "Yesterday" (1965), McCartney pioneered a modern form of art song, exemplified by the remarkable double-quartet string arrangement on "Eleanor Rigby" (1966), (which was strongly influenced by Bernard Herrmann's score for the Francois Truffaut film Fahrenheit 451), "Here, There and Everywhere" (1966) and "She's Leaving Home" (1967).

In spectroscopic analysis, scientists can use a spectrometer to study the atoms in stars and other distant objects. However, in recent years he has insisted in a number of media interviews that he was far more involved in the London avant garde scene than was Lennon, and that he was in some respects the more "experimental" of the two. The resulting pattern of gaps is called the absorption spectrum. Paul McCartney is usually cast as the group's romantic balladeer, and he displays a singular ear for melody and an arguably unrivalled facility for writing classic pop songs in a wide range of genres, ranking alongside Irving Berlin, Cole Porter and the Gershwin brothers as one of the greatest popular song writers of the 20th century. If a set of atoms is illuminated by a continuous spectrum, it will only absorb specific wavelengths (energies) of photon that correspond to the differences in its energy levels. "Yer Blues" from 1968 and "Don't Let Me Down" from 1969). When these atoms fall back toward the ground state, they will produce an emission spectrum. Again following the lead set by Bob Dylan, Lennon renewed his interest in rootsy "good old rock and roll" forms towards the close of The Beatles' career (e.g.

If a set of atoms is heated (such as in an arc lamp), their electrons will move into excited states. Lennon is conventionally portrayed as having played the major role in steering The Beatles towards psychedelia ("Rain" from 1965, "Tomorrow Never Knows" from 1966, and "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "Strawberry Fields Forever" and "I Am the Walrus" from 1967). Since each element has a unique set of energy levels, each creates its own light pattern unique to itself: its own spectral signature. The growing complexity of the group's lyrics after 1965 owe much to Dylan. An electron in a higher-energy orbital may drop to a lower-energy orbital by emitting a photon. And perhaps as a sign of respect, Lennon stopped playing harmonica when Dylan became iconically associated with the instrument. An electron may move from a lower-energy orbital to a higher-energy orbital by absorbing a photon with energy equal to the difference between the energies of the two levels. He started exploring more complex topics and lyrics and incorporated "folkier" musical styles in some of his songs.

Normally, an atom is found in its lowest-energy ground state; states with higher energy are called excited states. Lennon is said to have been stunned by "Subterranean Homesick Blues", and wondered how he could ever outdo it. Since each element in the periodic table consists of an atom in a unique configuration with different numbers of protons and electrons, each element can also be uniquely described by the energies of its atomic orbitals and the number of electrons within them. Starting with Rubber Soul's "You've Got to Hide Your Love Away" and "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)" from 1965, Lennon was heavily influenced by Bob Dylan. Many other types of bonds exist, including:. The Beatles covered Holly's "Words of Love" on their album Beatles for Sale. The formation of a bond causes a strong attraction between two atoms, creating molecules or ionic compounds. The naming of The Beatles was Lennon's tribute to Buddy Holly's band, The Crickets.

This can be achieved one of two ways: an atom can either share electrons with other atoms (a covalent bond), or it can remove electrons from (or donate electrons to) other atoms (an ionic bond). Holly's "That'll Be the Day" was the first song Lennon learned to play and sing accurately and the first song the proto-Beatles ever put to vinyl. Atoms may fill their valence shells by chemical bonding. John Lennon's early style has clear relationships to Buddy Holly and Roy Orbison ("Misery" from 1963 and "Please Please Me" from 1963). Fluorine is the most reactive of all elements. Lennon and McCartney's goal when they first began writing together was to become "the next Goffin and King".^{[citation needed]}. Also, atoms that need only few electrons (such as the halogens) to fill their valence shells are reactive. Some say that one of The Beatles' many achievements was to marry the relative sophistication of Goffin and King's songs (which used major-seventh chords, for example) with the straightforwardness of Buddy Holly, Berry and the early rock-and-roll performers.

Alkali metals are therefore very reactive, with caesium, rubidium, and francium being the most reactive of all metals. The song-writing of Gerry Goffin and Carole King was yet another influence. Conversely, atoms with few electrons in their valence shell are more reactive it is. McCartney later namechecked 'Phil and Don' in his solo track, "Let Em In". This means that atoms with full valence shells (the noble gases) are very unreactive. "Two of Us", the opening track on Let It Be is overtly composed in the Everly style and McCartney acknowledges this in the recording with a spoken "Take it Phil". Every atom is most stable with a full valence shell. Their vocals on "Love Me Do" and "Please Please Me" were inspired by the Everlys' powerful vocal innovation on "Cathy's Clown" (1960), the first recording to ever reach number one simultaneously in the USA and England.

Alkali metals contain one electron on their outer shell; alkaline earth metals, two electrons; halogens, seven electrons; and various others. Lennon and McCartney consciously copied Don and Phil Everly's distinctive two-part harmonies. Therefore, elements with the same number of valence electrons are grouped together in the columns of the periodic table of the elements. The Everly Brothers were another influence. The number of electrons in an atom's outermost shell (the valence shell) governs its bonding behavior. The song "Here, There and Everywhere" is said to have been written the evening that Lennon and McCartney first listened to Pet Sounds. Atoms that have either lost or gained electrons are called atomic ions (with either positive(+) or negative charge(−), respectively). The song "Back in the USSR" was based on a suggestion by Beach Boy Mike Love to McCartney and contains overt allusions to the Beach Boys' "California Girls".

Virtually all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created through stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis. especially the middle-eight. The elements with atomic number 84 (polonium) and heavier have no stable isotopes and are all radioactive. Of their early single, "From Me to You", McCartney said, "It could be done as an old ragtime tune.. Almost all isotopes of each element are radioactive; only a few are stable. Their impact is apparent in songs like "When I'm Sixty-Four" (composed during The Quarrymen period), "Honey Pie", and "Maxwell's Silver Hammer". Tritium is an unstable isotope which decays through a process called radioactivity. Apart from the up-beat, optimistic rock and roll sound of Little Richard and others, McCartney's influences include ragtime and music hall, owing much to his father's musical interests.

The hydrogen isotope which also contains one neutron so is called deuterium or hydrogen-2; the hydrogen isotope with two neutrons is called tritium or hydrogen-3. "Long Tall Sally" became a permanent fixture in The Beatles' concert performances, and McCartney's singing on their recorded version is widely regarded as among his best rock and roll vocal performances. The simplest atom is the hydrogen isotope protium, which has atomic number 1 and atomic mass number 1; it consists of one proton and one electron. In 1962 Richard socialised with The Beatles around Hamburg and they performed together at the Star Club. The atomic mass listed for each element in the periodic table is an average of the isotope masses found in nature, weighted by their abundance. The Beatles were also fond of Little Richard and some of their songs (especially in their early repertoire) featured falsetto calls similar to his, most notably on McCartney's rendition of his song "Long Tall Sally". For example, carbon-14 contains 6 protons and 8 neutrons in each atom, for a total mass number of 14. Drawing inspiration from an eclectic variety of sources, their home idiom was closer to pop music (during their early fame they were sometimes referred to as a "mod" band, a label they seem to have resisted).

When writing the name of an isotope, the element name is followed by the mass number. While many of these American influences drew from the blues music form, The Beatles, unlike their contemporaries The Rolling Stones, were seldom directly influenced by the blues. These are called the isotopes of an element. Postman". Each has the same atomic number but a different mass number. Early Beatles staples included faithful versions of Barrett Strong's Motown recording of "Money (That's What I Want)" and The Marvelettes' hit "Please Mr. Each element can have numerous kinds of atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but varying numbers of neutrons. The Beatles' distinctive vocal harmonies were also influenced by those of early Motown artists in America.

The number of neutrons A−Z in an atom has no effect on which element it is. Moreover, Harrison's guitar work remained highly influenced by rockabilly styles throughout the band's tenure. The atomic mass A, atomic mass number, or nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom of that element, so-called because each proton and neutron has a mass of about 1 amu. The band's early stage shows featured several Perkins tunes; some of these (notably "Honey Don't" featuring an early Starr vocal) they eventually recorded for their albums. The elements may be sorted according to the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number. George Harrison had a fondness for American rockabilly music, particularly that of Eddie Cochran and Carl Perkins. All atoms with the same atomic number share a wide variety of physical properties and exhibit the same chemical properties. In their early days as performers, the band took some cues from local Liverpool favourites Rory Storm and The Hurricanes, who Starr played with prior to joining The Beatles.

For example, carbon atoms are atoms containing six protons. After "Come Together" was released, music publisher Morris Levy sued John Lennon for copyright infringement of his song "You Can't Catch Me", ultimately resulting in Lennon agreeing to record covers of Levy's songs for his solo album Rock 'n' Roll so that Levy could receive royalties. The atomic number determines which chemical element the atom is. Chuck Berry's influence is also heard (in altered form) on later recordings such as "Everybody's Got Something to Hide Except Me and My Monkey" (1968) and "Come Together" (1969). Atoms are generally classified by their atomic number Z, which corresponds to the number of protons in the atom. They recorded covers of Berry songs "Roll Over Beethoven" and "Rock And Roll Music" on their early albums, and also performed many other of his classics in their live repertoire. At room temperature, atoms making up gases in the air move at a speed of 500 m/s (about 1100 mph or 1800 km/h). Many of the band's influences were American in origin, especially the music of Chuck Berry.

As the temperature of the system is increased, the kinetic energy of the particles in the system is increased, and their speed of motion increases. In other interviews over the years, one or the other of The Beatles has stated that if there had not been Elvis Presley, there probably would not have been The Beatles. The temperature of a collection of atoms is a measure of the average energy of motion of those atoms; at 0 kelvin (absolute zero) atoms would have no motion. When asked who of the early rockers had influenced him the most: "He was my favourite [...] He was the one who did it for me". This contracts the size of the electron shells, so that more electrons fit in the only a slightly greater volume. However, in Paul McCartney's most recent (early 2005) interview with Larry King, McCartney affirmed that Presley had an enormous impact on both he and Lennon. The reason for this is that heavy elements have large positive charge on their nuclei, which strongly attract the electrons to the center of the atom. It has long been argued that Presley's musical influence on The Beatles could have been indirect, with opinions somewhat split; although few had denied there was an influence, the extent of it had been the subject of debate among fans and music historians.

Their sizes are roughly the same to within a factor of 2. They also recorded a number of Presley covers at Abbey Road studios, and although these were not released officially until after the group split, bootleg copies have existed since the late 1960s. Atoms of different elements do vary in size, but the sizes do not scale linearly with the mass of the atom. In comments recorded for the Anthology TV series all four band members spoke of him in glowing terms, with Paul McCartney saying "Seeing Elvis was like seeing the messiah arrive". Nearly all the mass of an atom is in its nucleus, yet almost all the space in an atom is filled by its electrons. As youths, the members of The Beatles were enthusiastic followers of Elvis Presley, first and foremost, and later, of British rock-and-rollers, notably Cliff Richard and The Shadows, whose stage presence and female following were often cited by the band as one of their inspirations to begin performing publicly. If an atom were the size of a stadium, the nucleus would be the size of a marble.
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So the ratio of the size of the hydrogen atom to its nucleus is about 100,000:1. When the film finally appeared, it was after the break-up had been announced, and it was viewed by disappointed fans through the prism of that recent news. Compare this to the size of the proton (the only particle in the nucleus of the hydrogen atom), which is approximately 10⁻¹⁵ m. But with so much money spent on the project, it was decided to finish and release the film and album (the latter with considerable post-production by Phil Spector) in the spring of 1970. As an example, the size of a hydrogen atom is estimated to be approximately 1.0586×10⁻¹⁰ m (twice the Bohr radius). The band initially shelved both the film and the album, instead recording and issuing Abbey Road. For any atom, one might use the radius at which the electrons of the valence shell are most likely to be found. In this respect it unwittingly became a document of the beginning of their break-up.

For atoms that can form solid crystal lattices, the distance between the centers of adjacent atoms can be easily determined by x-ray diffraction, giving an estimate of the atoms' size. The documentary — which was originally intended to be simply a chronicle of the evolution of an album and the band's possible return to live performance — instead captured the prevailing tensions between the band members. Since the electron cloud does not have a sharp cutoff, the size of an atom is not easily defined. Let It Be was an ill-fated documentary of the band shot over a four-week period in January 1969. These include: electron microscopes (such as in scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)), atomic force microscopy (AFM), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and x-ray microscopy. The Beatles are said to have been pleased with the result and attended its highly publicised London premiere. However, there are ways of detecting the positions of atoms on the surface of a solid or a thin film so as to obtain images. Nonetheless it was acclaimed for its boldly innovative graphic style and clever humour, along with the soundtrack.

When an excited nucleus emits a photon to return to the ground state, the photon has very high energy and is called a gamma ray. Compounding this culture clash was the fact that BBC-1 at that time still only transmitted programs in black & white, while Tour was in colour, and the colour was integral to appreciation of the film. However, these transitions typically require thousands of times more energy than electron excitations. The film appeared radically avant-garde by those standards, and instead of showcasing the lovable moptops The Beatles had been up 'til recently, it showed them as part of the hippie counterculture of 1967 that was at odds with the British establishment of the era. In addition, like the electrons of the atom, the nucleons of nuclei may be pushed into excited states of higher energy. The film was critically panned when it aired on the BBC's premier television network, BBC-1, on Boxing Day — a day primarily for traditional cosy family entertainment. Decays involving electrons or positrons are due to the weak nuclear interaction. McCartney envisaged taking this idea and blending it with the peculiarly English working class tradition of charabanc mystery tours.

Radioactive transformations proceed by a wide variety of modes, but the most common are alpha decay (emission of a helium nucleus) and beta decay (emission of an electron). The Magical Mystery Tour film was essentially Paul McCartney's idea, outlined as he returned from a trip the US in the late spring of 1967 and loosely inspired by press coverage McCartney had read about Ken Kesey's Merry Pranksters' LSD-fueled American bus odyssey. When nuclei transformations take place spontaneously, this process is called radioactivity. (Lester described the film as "not an anti-war film but an anti-war-film film.") The dry, ironic British humour of this film may have been a bit over the heads of the American audience in those pre-Monty Python times, as it was not nearly as well received as the American-made Korean War satire M*A*S*H would be a few years later. Nuclei can undergo transformations that affect the number of protons and neutrons they contain, a process called radioactive decay. In 1966, Lennon "went solo" as a supporting character in a film called How I Won the War, again directed by Lester, a satire of World War II movies. The nucleons are held together in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force. Both of their first two films contained frequent show-stoppers when The Beatles would gather and sing their songs, which often (aside from the title tracks) had nothing whatsoever to do with the plot of the movie, defying the conventional approach of musical films.

The constituent protons and neutrons of the atomic nucleus are collectively called nucleons. For example, the film is dedicated "to Elias Howe, who in 1846 invented the sewing machine". Electrons with differing s have very slight energy differences called hyperfine splitting. In 1965 came Help!, a Technicolor extravaganza, also directed by Lester, shot in exotic locations (such as Salisbury Plain, with Stonehenge visible in the background; the Bahamas; and Salzburg and the Tyrol region of the Austrian Alps) in the style of a James Bond spoof along with even more Marx Brothers-style zaniness. Orbitals of differing m are degenerate but may be separated by applying a magnetic field, creating the Zeeman effect. It focused on Beatlemania and their hectic touring lifestyle, and was directed in a quasi-documentary style in black-and-white by an up-and-coming Richard Lester, who was known for having directed a television version of the successful BBC radio series The Goon Show as well as the offbeat short film "The Running, Jumping and Standing Still Film". In most atoms, orbitals of differing l are not exactly degenerate but separated into a fine structure. The Beatles had a limited but largely successful film career, beginning with A Hard Day's Night (1964), a loosely scripted comic farce, sometimes compared to the Marx Brothers in style.

In the illustration, the letters s, p, d and f (corresponding to l = 0, 1, 2, 3) describe the shape of the atomic orbital. Each Beatle went on to successful solo careers. Electrons with varying l and m have distinctive shapes denoted by spectroscopic notation. By the end of 1969 both Lennon and McCartney had effectively left the band and McCartney made the move official at the start of 1970 when he began legal proceedings to dissolve the band's business partnership. In addition to its principal quantum number n, an electron is distinguished by three other quantum numbers: the azimuthal quantum number l (describing the orbital angular momentum of the electron), the magnetic quantum number m (describing the direction of the angular momentum vector), and the spin quantum number s (describing the direction of the electron's intrinsic angular momentum). However, the band's differences were more or less put aside later in the year for the recording of what became their valedictory album, Abbey Road, which the group later recalled as being among the most enjoyable of their career. An excited atom's electrons will spontaneously fall into lower levels, emitting excess energy as a photons, until it returns to the ground state. Due to the adverse reporting of this situation in later years, Ono came to be singled out as "the woman who broke up the Beatles".

Under some circumstances an electron may be excited to a higher energy level (that is, it absorbs energy from an external source and leaps to a higher shell), leaving a space in a lower shell. The couple quickly became inseparable and Lennon further alienated the other Beatles by bringing Ono to almost every recording session, breaking the band's long-standing rule against outsiders at sessions. In the most stable ground state, an atom's electrons will fill up its shells in order of increasing energy. By this time another very significant factor had emerged — Lennon's passionate affair with Japanese artist Yoko Ono. The occupied shell of greatest n is the valence shell, even if it only has one electron. The rapidly deteriorating relationships marred the troubled Get Back sessions in January 1969 — Lennon later colourfully denounced them as being the worst recordings of their career — and the project was made even more stressful by the presence of a film crew hired to capture the proceedings for a planned movie (which eventually became the Let It Be documentary). An electron shell can hold up to 2n² electrons, where n is the principal quantum number of the shell. During this time McCartney played drums on some of the tracks on the album, including "Back in the USSR".

Core electrons (those not in the outer shell) play a role, but it is usually in terms of a secondary effect due to screening of the positive charge in the atomic nucleus. The friction eventually drove Starr to take a two-week hiatus (this is generally reported as him temporarily quitting the band). The electrons in the outermost shell, called the valence electrons, have the greatest influence on chemical behavior. Harrison's "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" even featured an outside musician (his friend Eric Clapton) performing the guitar solo; Clapton was reportedly brought in as the result of a bitter dispute between Harrison and Lennon, who at the time was reportedly considering sacking Harrison from the band. Generally, the higher the energy level of a shell, the further away it is from the nucleus. Several tracks were cut as de facto solo recordings by the principal composer, with the other band members more or less relegated to the role of session musician. These configurations are determined by the quantum mechanics of electrons in the electric potential of the atom; the principal quantum number determines particular electron shells with distinct energy levels. By the time of the sessions for The Beatles ("The White Album"), released in late 1968, the once close-knit members were clearly drifting apart both musically and personally.

Electrons of an atom remain within certain, predictable electron configurations. Drug use, personal factors and, above all, the unrelenting pressures and demands of their worldwide fame inevitably intensified these stresses. The chemical behavior of atoms is due to interactions between electrons. Internal divisions within the band had been a small but growing problem during their earlier career; most notably, this was reflected in the difficulty that George Harrison experienced in getting his own songs onto Beatles albums, and in the growing artistic and personal estrangement between Lennon and McCartney. Protons and neutrons are bound together in the nucleus by gluons carrying the strong nuclear force. The group gradually took greater charge of their own productions and McCartney's growing dominance in this role, especially after the death of Epstein, played a part in the eventual split of the group. Electrons are bound to the nucleus by photons carrying the electromagnetic force. (EMI delayed the introduction of eight-track recording, already becoming common in American studios, until 1968 at Abbey Road.) Along with studio tricks such as sound effects, unconventional microphone placements, automatic double tracking and vari-speed recording, The Beatles began augmenting their recordings using instruments considered unconventional for pop music at the time, including string and brass ensembles, Indian instruments such as the sitar and the swarmandel, tape loops and early electronic instruments, including John Lennon's Mellotron (later used by Trent Reznor to record Nine Inch Nails's The Downward Spiral) and George Harrison's Moog Synthesizer.

Together, the electron and neutrino are both leptons. In 1966, at the height of their fame and bolstered by the two films A Hard Day's Night and Help!, the band stopped touring. In addition, the electron is known to have a nearly massless neutral partner called a neutrino. Martin later said he was initially attracted to the group because they were "very charming people". However, protons and neutrons themselves are now known to consist of still smaller particles called quarks. Martin's work on solo projects with Peter Sellers and Spike Milligan of The Goons impressed The Beatles, who were fans. Before 1961, the subatomic particles were thought to consist of only protons, neutrons and electrons. His earlier production experience, ranging from acts such as Jimmy Shand to comedy recordings with members of The Goons, is said to have prepared him for the open-minded, sometimes experimental studio approach The Beatles developed as they became more experienced.

This nucleus is itself made up of nucleons: positively charged protons and chargeless neutrons. He used his experience to bring out the potential in the group, recognizing and nurturing their creativity rather than imposing his views. The electrons orbit a small, dense body containing all of the positive charge in the atom, called the atomic nucleus. The role of producer George Martin is often cited as a crucial element in the success of The Beatles. The first of these to be discovered was the negatively charged electron, which is easily ejected from atoms during ionization. Many observers have noted that understanding the success of The Beatles and their music begins and ends with an appreciation for the diverse ways in which they (especially Lennon and McCartney) blended their voices as instruments. Although the name "atom" was applied at a time when atoms were thought to be indivisible, it is now known that the atom can be broken down into a number of smaller components. On December 15, 2005, McCartney and Starr, along with the families of Lennon and Harrison (who died 29 November 2001) sued EMI in a royalties dispute in which Apple Corps claimed EMI owes The Beatles £30 million.

. Three volumes (six CDs in total) of unreleased material and studio outtakes were also released, as well as a documentary and television miniseries, in a project known as The Beatles Anthology. Molecules are made up of multiple atoms; for example, a molecule of water is a combination of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. However, a virtual reunion occurred in 1995 with the release of two original Lennon recordings which had the additional contributions of the remaining Beatles mixed in to create two hit singles, "Free as a Bird" and "Real Love". Atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds. Any hopes of a reunion were dashed when Lennon was murdered by Mark David Chapman, a deranged fan, on December 8, 1980. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of chemistry, and are conserved in chemical reactions. Following the breakup, the only album to feature all four Beatles (although not on the same song) was Ringo, a 1973 Starr solo album.

The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus may also change, via nuclear fusion, nuclear fission or radioactive decay. The band officially broke up in April 1970, and one month later Let It Be followed as their last commercial album release. Atoms which have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Largely due to McCartney's efforts, they recorded their final album, Abbey Road in the summer of 1969. Electrons that are furthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or even shared between atoms. Their final live performance was on the rooftop of the Apple building in Savile Row, London in January 1969 during the difficult "Get Back" sessions (later used as a basis for the Let It Be album). Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. These sessions saw deep divisions opening within the band for the first time.

Within a single element, the number of neutrons may also vary, determining the isotope of that element. The latter part of 1968 saw the band busy recording the double album The Beatles, popularly known as The White Album due to its stark white cover. The number of protons in an atom (called the atomic number) determines the element of the atom. Upon their return, Lennon and McCartney took a trip to New York in order to announce the formation of Apple Corps, an initially altruistic business venture which they described at the time as an attempt at "western communism". Atoms differ in the number of each of the subatomic particles they contain. The trip as a whole ended in controversy after three months when unsubstantiated claims that the Maharishi had attempted to seduce a female student at the camp led to the depature of the two remaining Beatles. The electrons form the much larger electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. Starr left India after a week, and Paul after a month.

Protons and neutrons are both nucleons and make up the dense, massive atomic nucleus. In 1968, the group spent the early part of the year in Rishikesh, India studying transcendental meditation with the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Most atoms are composed of three types of massive subatomic particles which govern their external properties:. At the end of 1967, they suffered their first major critical flop with the TV film Magical Mystery Tour. This definition must not be confused with that of chemical atoms, since chemical atoms (hereafter "atoms") are composed of smaller subatomic particles. Among the guests where Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Marianne Faithfull, Eric Clapton and Keith Moon. The word atom may also refer to the smallest possible indivisble fundamental particle. The event took place at the Abbey Road Studios in London.

In chemistry and physics, an atom (Greek άτομον meaning "indivisible") is the smallest possible particle of a chemical element that retains its chemical properties. That same year, on 25th of June, The Beatles became the first band ever globally broadcast on television, in front of over 200 million people worldwide. van der Waals bonds. However, The Beatles' financial situation took a turn for the worse when manager Brian Epstein died in 1967 at the age of thirty-two, and the band's affairs began to unravel. hydrogen bonds; and. The group's compositions and musical experiments raised their artistic reputations while they retained their tremendous popularity. metallic bonds;. From this time until the group dissolved in early 1970, The Beatles concentrated on recording music.

coordinate covalent bonds;. The Beatles performed their last concert before paying fans in Candlestick Park in San Francisco on 29 August 1966. polar covalent bonds;. Lennon tried to point out that he was merely commenting on the Beatlemania phenomenon, not trying to literally equate the group to Jesus, saying about his own comment that "It was wrong, or it was taken wrong.". neutrons, which have no charge and are about 1838 times more massive than electrons. These events, along with threats from racist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, eventually forced Lennon to apologise for his remarks several times, including at a Chicago press conference. protons, which have a positive charge and are about 1836 times more massive than electrons; and. Many religious groups, including the Holy See, voiced strong objections, and Beatles records were banned and burned in cities and towns across America and around the world.

electrons, which have a negative charge and are the least massive of the three;. In July 1966 an out-of-context comment caused a backlash against The Beatles from religious and social conservatives, when in a serious interview Lennon offered his opinion that Christianity was dying and that the group was "more popular than Jesus". McCartney followed suit in November 1966. Lennon and Harrison were given their first dose unknowingly at a dinner party when their host (a dentist) spiked their drinks, while Starr took his first trip at a party with Peter Fonda and members of The Byrds. Lennon, Harrison, and Starr began experimenting with LSD later that year.

On August 15 of that year, The Beatles performed at the first stadium concert in modern rock, playing at Shea Stadium to a crowd of 56,000. In 1965 Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II bestowed upon them the MBE, sparking some conservative MBE recipients to return their awards in protest. When they arrived in Adelaide, The Beatles were greeted by what is reputed to be the largest crowd of their touring career, when over 300,000 people — about one-third of the entire population of the city at that time — turned out to see them. Just before the tour began, Ringo was briefly hospitalised with a severe attack of pharyngitis, so drummer Jimmy Nicol was drafted in for several concerts on the Australian leg.

In mid-1964 the band undertook their first world tour, which included Australia and New Zealand. Despite the naysayers, during the week of April 4, 1964 The Beatles held the top five places on the Billboard Hot 100, a feat that has never been repeated. The band had become a worldwide phenomenon, with worshipful fans and angry denunciations by cultural observers and established performers such as Frank Sinatra, sometimes on grounds of the music (which was thought crude and unmusical) or their appearance (their hair was considered 'scandalously long'). This remains one of the largest viewing audiences ever in the US.

A record-breaking 73 million viewers — approximately 40% of the US population at the time — tuned in to the first Sullivan appearance on February 9. The Beatlemania that had gripped the United States since late December was immeasurably boosted with the three consecutive national television appearances by the group on The Ed Sullivan Show. The record had been number one for three weeks prior to The Beatles' arrival in America, leading to the hysterical fan reaction at JFK Airport on February 7, 1964. The record sold one million copies in just 10 days, and by January 16 Cashbox Magazine had certified The Beatles record #1 (in the edition with the cover-date January 23).

The disc was an immediate success on New York radio, especially with school children who, because they were on Christmas break, heard the record more frequently in daytime than they would otherwise have done. WINS and WABC soon followed and Beatlemania broke in New York and quickly spread to other markets. Capitol convinced New York's WMCA, the top pop station in the US, to play "I Want To Hold Your Hand" on December 26, airing just before 1pm. The Beatles were scheduled for Ed Sullivan and Carnegie Hall, both in New York.

There was obviously no expectation that a completely unknown foreign artist could climb to the number one position just three weeks after the scheduled mid-January release. He committed to a mid-January release for "I Want To Hold Your Hand", with the expectation that by the date of The Beatles' first appearance on Sullivan (scheduled for February 9) the disc might have reached the Hot Hundred and thus be boosted higher up the charts by the consecutive TV appearances. He by-passed Dave Dexter, the A&R executive who had rejected the group four times by then, and dealt directly with Capitol president Alan Livingstone, who was impressed by what Epstein had lined up. Following Brian Epstein's success in early November in persuading Ed Sullivan to commit to presenting The Beatles on three editions of his show in February (even though the group had no American record label at the time of Sullivan's committment), Epstein parlayed this guaranteed exposure into a record deal with Capitol Records.

Murray the K featured "She Loves You" on his 1010 WINS record revue in October with nary a response. A testing of the song on his TV show American Bandstand resulted in laughter and scorn from American teenagers when they saw the group's unusual haircuts. In August 1963 the Philadelphia-based Swan label tried again with The Beatles' "She Loves You", which also failed to receive airplay. Other US stations played Beatles records sporadically, but to no real effect.

Art Roberts, music director of Chicago powerhouse radio station WLS, placed "Please Please Me" into rotation in late February 1963, making it possibly the first time a Beatles' record was heard on American radio. VeeJay Records, a small Chicago label, is said by some to have been pressured into issuing these singles as part of a deal for the rights to another performer's masters. Although the band experienced great popularity in the record charts in Britain from early 1963 onwards, Parlophone's American counterpart, Capitol Records (which was owned by EMI), refused to issue the singles "Love Me Do", "Please Please Me" and "From Me To You" in the United States, partly because no British act had ever had a sustained impact on American audiences beyond one-off hits. The band's first televised performance was on a programme called People and Places broadcast live from Manchester by Granada Television on 17 October 1962.

Three months later they recorded their first album (also titled Please Please Me), a mix of original songs by Lennon and McCartney along with some covers. ("Love Me Do" subsequently reached the top of the US singles chart in May 1964.) This was swiftly followed by the recording of their second single Please Please Me. The Beatles' first sessions in September 1962 produced a minor UK hit, "Love Me Do", which charted. This did not convince his army of fans back home in Liverpool.

The reason given at the time was that, whilst he looked the part, his drumming was poor. Pete Best was fired in favour of Ringo Starr. After considerable thought Martin decided to grant The Beatles their first UK recording contract. On 6 June, after being rejected by almost every other record company in the UK, he brought the quartet to London's Abbey Road studios, having secured the interest of George Martin, principal producer with EMI's Parlophone label, then noted for its production of novelty records.

After one last session for Polydor in May 1962, Epstein and Kaempfert jointly agreed to cancel the group's contract with the German label. Brian Epstein, manager of the record department at NEMS, his family's furniture store, took over as the group's manager in 1962 and intensified The Beatles' quest for a British recording contract. Upon their return from Hamburg, the group was enthusiastically promoted by Sam Leach, who presented them over the next year and a half on various stages in Liverpool 49 times, including the famed "Operation Big Beat in 1961", at which 3000 people paid to see The Beatles perform along with Rory Storm and The Hurricanes, Taylor and The Dominoes, Gerry and The Pacemakers and others at the Tower Ballroom, New Brighton. They were deported from Germany on one occasion in 1960, when their work permits had expired, and it was discovered that Harrison was under age.

On 23 October, Polydor published the song "My Bonnie (Mein Herz ist bei dir nur)", which made it into the German charts (#5, according to a Paul McCartney interview). Kaempfert signed the group to its own Polydor contract at the first session in June 1961. While in Hamburg, The Beatles were recruited by singer Tony Sheridan to act as his backing band on a series of recordings for the German Polydor Records label, produced by famed bandleader Bert Kaempfert. In Hamburg (particularly at the infamous Kaiserkeller club) they honed their skills as performers and broadened their reputation.

In August 1960, McCartney invited Pete Best to become the group's drummer. In 1960, their unofficial manager, Allan Williams, arranged for them to perform in clubs on the Reeperbahn in Hamburg, Germany. "Crickets") and the word "beat" which in the late 1950s and early 1960s carried both musical connotations (the beat of a song) and pop-cultural connotations (relating to the Beat generation). The group's name was a combination word-play on "Beetles" (vs.

The origin of the name "The Beatles" with its unusual spelling is usually credited to John Lennon. The Quarry Men went through a progression of names: Johnny and The Moondogs, The Silver Beetles, and eventually arriving at The Beatles. The Casbah Coffee Club opened in August 1959, and the resident group was the Quarry Men — John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ken Brown, on drums, who would soon be cast off. The Cavern was one of the more well-known spots where the band performed during their independent years.

It was one of the first cellar clubs in Liverpool to present rock 'n' roll groups exclusively, as opposed to the strict policy of jazz for venues such as The Cavern and the Cat A Coombs. Best had noticed the number of young friends visiting her son, Pete, at the house and decided to turn part of the cellar into a private club, which eventually developed into a club for young people with live groups. The first regular gigs for the group were at a club named The Jacaranda, created by Mona Best in the basement of her family's home. Hanton left in 1959.

Lennon, McCartney and Harrison were the only constant members. During this period, members constantly joined and left the line up. Recordings of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison from that year still exist. In February 1958 the young guitarist George Harrison joined the group, which was then playing under a variety of names.

The lineup that McCartney joined featured Lennon, Eric Griffiths on guitar, Len Garry on "tea-chest" bass, Pete Shotton on "washboard" and Colin Hanton on drums. That year, Lennon met Paul McCartney while playing at the Woolton Parish Church Garden Fete, and shortly afterwards, Lennon invited McCartney to join his fledgling group. In March 1957, John Lennon formed a skiffle group, The Blackjacks, who later became The Quarry Men. .

Thirty-five years later, in 2005, the American entertainment industry magazine Variety named them the most iconic entertainers of the 20th century^[2]. The group disbanded in 1970 amid much strife. Their clothes, hairstyles and choice of musical instruments made them trendsetters throughout the decade; their growing social awareness, reflected in the development of their music, saw their influence extended far beyond the music scene into the social and cultural revolutions of the 1960s; and their enduring popularity with successive generations of both fans and musicians has cemented their reputation for being one of the most influential music artists of all time. They also pioneered many innovative production techniques and their epoch-making 1967 LP Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band is often cited as one of the first concept albums.

Their use of George Martin’s chamber and baroque orchestrations on songs such as "Yesterday" and "Eleanor Rigby" was another first in contemporary popular music. They were also pioneers of new musical directions such as psychedelia (with "Strawberry Fields Forever") and early heavy metal (with "Helter Skelter"). In addition to their core pop and rock styles, The Beatles canon included songs flavored with folk, country, rockabilly, blues, soul, doo-wop, ska and many other musical genres. Despite the wide array of musical styles utilized, Beatles recordings were readily identifiable because of their distinctive vocals.

The constant factor in the vast majority of their songs was their focus on melody. They composed songs and arranged them in a wide array of musical styles – occasionally fusing genres. But they grew increasingly eclectic as composers, arrangers and performers over the years. Their earliest compositions were mainly rock ‘n’ roll or R&B-rooted pop songs with the occasional ballad.

Their ballad "Yesterday" — written and sung by Paul McCartney (though officially credited as written by Lennon-McCartney) — is the most-covered song in the history of recorded music. EMI estimated in 1985 that the band had sold over a billion records worldwide^[1]. They were the first British pop act to achieve major and ongoing success in the United States, scoring twenty #1 hits in the USA alone, becoming the biggest musical act of the twentieth century. Comprising John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, the group shattered many sales records and charted more than fifty top 40 hit singles.

The Beatles were a British rock music group from Liverpool, England held in very high regard for both their artistic achievements and their considerable commercial success, and have amassed an enormous worldwide fanbase that continues to exist to this day. Pete Best: drums (1960–1962). Stuart Sutcliffe: bass, vocals (1960–1961).