Anton van Leeuwenhoek

^ The given name Anton can also be found written as Anthon, Anthony, Antonie, Antony, Anthonie, Antoni, and Anthoni.. With the genius and legacy of Leonardo da Vinci having captivated authors and scholars generations after his death, the following examples of "Da Vinci fiction" can be found in culture and literature. However, others argue that there appears to be little physical similarity^[9]. his tank. Also, it is known that Van Leeuwenhoek acted as the executor when the painter died in 1675. While most of Leonardo's inventions were not realized, many were technologically feasible as it was demonstrated recently, e.g. Because they were both relatively important men in a city with only 24,000 inhabitants, it is possible that they were at least acquaintances. In January 2005, researchers discovered the hidden laboratory used by Leonardo da Vinci for studies of flight and other pioneering scientific work in previously sealed rooms at a monastery next to the Basilica of the Santissima Annunziata, in the heart of Florence.[6].

It has been suggested that he is the man portrayed in two of Vermeer's paintings of the late 1660s, The astronomer and The geographer. They remained obscure until the 19th century, and were not directly of value to the development of science and technology. Van Leeuwenhoek was a contemporary of that other famous Delft citizen, painter Johannes Vermeer, who was baptized just four days earlier. Technological historian Lewis Mumford suggests that Leonardo kept notebooks as a private journal, intentionally censoring his work from those who might irresponsibly use it (the tank, for instance). 196)^[7][8]. Why Leonardo did not publish or otherwise distribute the contents of his notebooks remains a mystery to those who believe that Leonardo wanted to make his observations public knowledge. The microscope gave him the opportunity to study and admire the small organisms, the “animalcules,” and whenever he was able he expressed his admiration of the beautiful things he saw.” (Schierbeek, p. In his years in the Vatican, he planned an industrial use of solar power, by employing concave mirrors to heat water.

To him, as to many others of his time, a watch was a greater specimen of craftsmanship than a clock in a tower; this opinion is reflected in his biological views. Other inventions include a submarine, a cog-wheeled device that has been interpreted as the first mechanical calculator, and a car powered by a spring mechanism. He asked of his challengers only that they prove their points as he proved his.” Schierbeek says, “Leeuwenhoek was driven by a passionate desire to penetrate more deeply into the mysteries of creation. even though he later held war to be the worst of human activities. He loved truth above any theory, even his own. Owing to his sometime employment as a military engineer, his notebooks also contain several designs for military machines: machine guns, an armoured tank powered by humans or horses, cluster bombs, etc. His virtues were perseverance, simplicity, and stubbornness. It was never built, but Leonardo's vision was resurrected in 2001 when a smaller bridge based on his design was constructed in Norway.

Dan Graves, in Scientists of Faith (Kregel, 1996), writes, “He often referred with reverence to the wonders God designed in making creatures small and great. The bridge was intended to span an inlet at the mouth of the Bosphorus known as the Golden Horn. From Leeuwenhoek’s writings we frequently sense the awe and wonder that can only emanate from a man who has a joyful, personal relationship with God the Creator. In 1502 Leonardo da Vinci produced a drawing of a single span 720-foot (240 m) bridge as part of a civil engineering project for Sultan Beyazid II of Constantinople. 171)^[6]. On January 3, 1496 he unsuccessfully tested a flying machine he had constructed. (Schierbeek, p. Fascinated by the phenomenon of flight, Leonardo produced detailed studies of the flight of birds, and plans for several flying machines, including a helicopter powered by four men (which would not have worked since the body of the craft would have rotated) and a light hang-glider which could have flown.

And this most wonderful disposition of nature with regard to these animalcules for the preservation of their species; which at the same time strikes us with astonishment, must surely convince all of the absurdity of those old opinions, that living creatures can be produced from corruption of putrefaction. It is not known if an attempt was made to build the device. From all these observations, we discern most plainly the incomprehensible perfection, the exact order, and the inscrutable providential care with which the most wise Creator and Lord of the Universe had formed the bodies of these animalcules, which are so minute as to escape our sight, to the end that different species of them may be preserved in existence. The design, which has come to be called Leonardo's robot, was probably made around the year 1495 but was rediscovered only in the 1950s. The preceding kinds of experiments I have repeated many times with the same success, and in particular with some of the sediment which had been kept in my study for about five months. His study of human anatomy led also to the design of the first known robot in recorded history. After another remarkable series of experiments on rotifers in 1702 he concluded:. Because he actively searched for bodily deformed people to paint them, he is also considered to be the beginner of caricature.

137)^[5]. It is important to note that he was not only interested in structure but also in function, so he was anatomist and physiologist at the same time. This must appear wonderful, and be a confirmation of the principle, that all living creatures deduce their origin from those which were formed at the Beginning.” (Schierbeek, p. He not only studied the anatomy of human, but also of other beings. For example, after working for weeks observing the propagation of insects, Leeuwenhoek stated confidently, “. He was a master of topographic anatomy. He believed it foolish to think his little “animalcules” could have formed by chance, and he worked diligently to prove that all things reproduce after their kind, as the book of Genesis teaches. He often drew muscles and tendons of the cervical muscles and of the shoulder.

It is clear, too, from his stand against non-Christian superstitions such as the doctrine of spontaneous generation, that he held to a Biblical doctrine of creation. He was one of the firsts who drew the fetus in the intrauterine position (he wished to learn about "the miracle of pregnancy"). 31)^[4]. He drew many images of the lungs, mesentery, urinary tract, sex organs, and even coitus. Without ever lapsing into high-flown phrases he repeatedly gave evidence of his religious faith: ‘Let us lay the hand on our mouth, and reflect that the All-wise hath deemed this needful for the reproduction of all that hath received movement and growth, and so, the why and the wherefore we can but guess after.’” (Schierbeek, p. He was also able to represent exceptionally well the human skull and cross-sections of the brain (transversal, sagittal, and frontal). Of Leeuwenhoek’s personal faith, Schierbeek says, “To this we must add his deep religious assurance, his complete faith in the ‘All-wise Creator,’ a never-flagging admiration for the perfection of the most minute, hidden mysteries of the work of His hands and the conviction that his researches would surely help to make His Omnipotence more universally known. He also studied the inclination of pelvis and sacrum and stressed that sacrum was not uniform, but composed of five vertebrae.

Thus we see again that Christianity was the driving force during the rise of modern science. Leonardo drew many images of the human skeleton, and was the first to describe the double S form of the backbone. 200)^[3]. However, his book was published only in 1580 (long after his death) under the heading Treatise on painting. Schierbeek observes, “His works are full of his admiration of creation and the Creator, a theme which is frequently found in writings of this period; in becoming better acquainted with creation, men wanted to get nearer the Creator, a conviction which is found among many of the early members of the Royal Society.” (Schierbeek, p. Together with Marcantonio, he prepared to publish a theoretical work on anatomy and made more than 200 drawings. Schierbeek, the Editor-in-Chief of the collected letters of Leeuwenhoek, explains that he was part of the ‘New Philosophy’ of scientists like Robert Boyle, who regarded the study of nature as “a work to the glory of God and the benefit of Man.” The newly-formed Royal Society was made up largely of Puritans with similar convictions, from which we can infer Leeuwenhoek shared with them a common bond of belief, since he took great pride in his relationship with the Royal Society, mentioning it on his title pages and even on his tombstone. In 30 years, Leonardo dissected 30 male and female corpses of different ages.

A. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre (1481 to 1511). Of his religion, Richard Westfall of Indiana University writes, “He was baptized and buried in Calvinist churches, and his second wife was the daughter of a Calvinist minister.” This tradition, furthermore, understood and encouraged man’s role in the investigation of God’s handiwork in nature. Later he dissected also in Milano in the hospital Maggiore and in Rome in the hospital Santo Spirito (the first mainland Italian hospital). He often referred with reverence to the wonders God designed in making creatures small and great.^[2] He was born into the Dutch Reformed tradition, which had a high view of Scripture and salvation in Jesus, and a firm doctrine of creation. As he became successful as an artist, he was given permission to dissect human corpses at the hospital Santa Maria Nuova in Florence. Antony van Leeuwenhoek was a solid Dutch Reformed, Calvinist. Leonardo started to discover the anatomy of the human body at the time he was apprenticed to Andrea del Verrocchio, as his teacher insisted that all his pupils learn anatomy.

. As did most people at the time, he believed that the Sun revolved around the Earth, and that the Moon reflects the sun's light due to its being covered by water. He died at 91, on August 30, 1723. Since he lacked formal education in Latin and mathematics, contemporary scholars mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist. Nine years later he obtained a degree in geography, leading to his appointment as geographer in 1679. Throughout his life, he planned a grand encyclopedia based on detailed drawings of everything. In 1660, Van Leeuwenhoek was appointed chamberlain of the Lord Regents of Delft. His approach to science was an observatory one: he tried to understand a phenomenon by describing and depicting it in utmost detail, and did not emphasize experiments or theoretical explanations.

In 1674 he discovered infusoria (dated zoölogical category,) in 1676 he discovered bacteria, in 1677 he discovered spermatozoi and in 1682 he discovered the banded pattern of muscular fibers. This is explainable by the fact that it is easier to pull a quill pen than to push it; by using mirror-writing, the left-handed writer is able to pull the pen from right to left. These letters dealt with the subjects he had investigated. He was left-handed and used mirror writing throughout his life. Ever since his invitation, he wrote approximately 560 letters to the society and other scientific institutions over a period of 50 years. These notes were made and maintained through Leonardo's travels through Europe, during which he made continual observations of the world around him. This resulted in his appointment in 1680. Perhaps even more impressive than his artistic work are his studies in science and engineering, recorded in notebooks comprising some 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, which fuse art and science.

After this important invention and his thorough use of it, he was introduced to the Royal Society by the famous Dutch Physician Regnier de Graaf. Chiaroscuro is the technique of modelling and defining forms through contrasts of light and shadow. He spent his nights studying everything he could and carefully noted his observations. It is characterized by subtle transitions between colour areas, creating an atmospheric haze or smoky effect. From there, he grew an insatiable interest for the field. One of them, a colour shading technique called sfumato, used a series of custom-made glazes by Leonardo. His microscope was used and improved by Christiaan Huygens for his own investigations into microscopy. Leonardo pioneered new painting techniques in many of his pieces.

He was introduced to microscopy by Huygens to observe the quality of the fabrics that he sold. After producing a fantastic variety of studies in preparation for the work, he left the city, with the mural unfinished due to technical difficulties. The microscopes were very minute, and were held by the thumb and index finger. After returning to Florence, he was commissioned for a large public mural, The Battle of Anghiari; his rival Michelangelo was to paint the opposite wall. These little devices are up to today still called "thread counters" in Dutch, when literally translated. (In 1999 a pair of full-scale statues based on his plans were cast, one erected in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the other in Milan [5].) The Hunt Museum in Limerick, Ireland has a small bronze horse, thought to be the work of an apprentice from Leonardo's original design. He used a magnifying lens to study the quality of the cloth he sold, which magnified at about 3x power. Because of war with France, the project was never finished.

In 1654, he moved back to Delft and started a drapery business, since he had been educated as a textile salesman. In Milan he spent 17 years making plans and models for a monumental seven metre (24 ft) high horse statue in bronze called "Gran Cavallo". It is suspected, though, that Antoni possessed some microscopes that could magnify up to 500 times. None of his sculptures have survived. Those that survived the years are able to magnify up to 270 times. Of his paintings, only seventeen survived. His microscopes were made of silver or copper metal frames holding home-wrought lenses. After extensive, ambitious plans and many drawings, the painting was left unfinished and Leonardo left for Milan.

He also created over 400 different types of microscopes, only nine of which still exist today. For example, in 1481 he was commissioned to paint the altarpiece The Adoration of the Magi. Van Leeuwenhoek ground over 500 optical lenses during his lifetime. Leonardo often planned grandiose paintings with many drawings and sketches, only to leave the projects unfinished. Using his handcrafted microscope he was the first to observe and describe muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in capillaries (small blood vessels). The name Mona Lisa is not the one given to the piece of art at the time, nor was it known by this title until much later. Born the son of a basket weaver, he is best known for his contribution to improvement of the microscope and his contributions towards the establishment of cell biology. It is well known that Leonardo made extensive use of many tricks in this painting, including the so-called Golden Ratio.

Anton^[1] van Leeuwenhoek (October 24, 1632 - August 30, 1723, full name Thonius Philips van Leeuwenhoek) was a tradesman and scientist from Delft, in the Netherlands. Thousands of people see it each year in the Louvre, perhaps drawing their own interpretation on what is known as the Mona Lisa's most infamous and enigmatic feature - her smile. ^ http://www.creationsafaris.com/wgcs_2.htm. He most likely kept it with him at all times, and did not travel without it. This book (223 pp.) contains excerpts of Leeuwenhoek’s letters and focuses on his priority in several new branches of science, but makes several important references to his spiritual life and motivation. Though there is significant debate whether Leonardo himself painted the Mona Lisa, or whether it was the work of his students, it is known that it was probably his favourite piece. Leeuwenhoek, Formerly Lecturer in the History of Biology in the University of Leyden, Measuring the Invisible World: The Life and Works of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek F R S, Abelard-Schuman (London and New York, 1959), QH 31 L55 S3, LC 59-13233 . Leonardo is well known for his artistry and paintings, such as Last Supper (Ultima Cena or Cenacolo, in Milan) 1498, and the Mona Lisa (also known as La Gioconda, now at the Louvre in Paris), 1503-1506.

v. Melzi was his principal heir and executor, but Salai was not forgotten: he received half of Leonardo's vineyard. Schierbeek, PhD, Editor-in-Chief of the Collected Letters of A. He was buried in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in the castle of Amboise. ^ A. According to his wish, 60 beggars followed his casket. ^ http://www.adherents.com/people/pl/Antony_van_Leeuwenhoek.html. Leonardo da Vinci died at Clos Lucé, France, on 2nd May, 1519.

62–67. Francis became a close friend. Vrij Nederland (Dutch magazine), p. In 1518 Salai left Leonardo and returned to Milan, where he eventually perished in a duel. Vermeer, Van Leeuwenhoek en De Astronoom. The King granted Leonardo and his entourage generous pensions: the surviving document lists 1000 écus for the artist, 400 for Melzi (named "apprentice") and 100 for Salai (named "servant"). (February 24 1996). In 1516, he entered Francis' service, being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé (also called "Cloux") next to the king's residence at the royal Chateau Amboise.

^  Van Berkel, K. In 1515 Francis I of France retook Milan, and Leonardo was commissioned to make a centrepiece (a mechanical lion) for the peace talks between the French king and Pope Leo X in Bologna, where he must have first met the King. However, he was probably of pivotal importance in the relocation of David (in Florence), one of Michelangelo's masterpieces, against the artist's will. From 1513 to 1516, he lived in Rome, where painters like Raphael and Michelangelo were active at the time, though he did not have much contact with these artists. In 1506 he returned to Milan, now in the hands of Maximilian Sforza after Swiss mercenaries had driven out the French.

In Florence he entered the services of Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as a military architect and engineer; with Cesare he travelled throughout Italy. He left with Salai and his friend Luca Pacioli (the first man to describe double-entry bookkeeping) for Mantua, moving on after 2 months to Venice (where he was hired as a military engineer), then briefly returning to Florence at the end of April 1500. Leonardo stayed in Milan for a time, until one morning when he found French archers using his life-size clay model of the "Gran Cavallo" for target practice. When the French returned under Louis XII in 1498, Milan fell without a fight, overthrowing Sforza [4].

It was here that seventy tons of bronze that had been set aside for Leonardo's "Gran Cavallo" horse statue (see below) were cast into weapons for the Duke in an attempt to save Milan from the French under Charles VIII in 1495. From around 1482 to 1499, Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan [3], employed Leonardo and permitted him to operate his own workshop complete with apprentices. He was also a respected judge on matters of beauty and elegance, particularly in the creation of pageants. Vasari reports a story that as a young man in Florence he often bought caged birds just to release them from captivity.

Under the heading, "Of the beasts from whom cheese is made," he answers, "the milk will be taken from the tiny children." [2]). His respect for life led him to being a vegetarian at least part of his life (although the term 'vegan' would fit him well, as he even entertained the notion that taking milk from cows amounts to stealing. It is apparent from the works of Leonardo and his early biographers that he was a man of high integrity and very sensitive to moral issues. Leonardo had many other friends who are now figures renowned in their fields, or for their influence on history; these included Niccolò Machiavelli, Cesare Borgia and Franchinus Gaffurius.

Melzi, however, became Leonardo's pupil and life companion. Though Salai was always introduced as Leonardo's "pupil", he never produced any work of artistic merit. Salai eventually accepted Melzi's continued presence and the three undertook journeys throughout Italy. In 1506, Leonardo met Count Francesco Melzi, the 15 year old son of a Lombard aristocrat.

Some believe this can be explained by Leonardo's role as a mentor and teacher, which required male assistants to aid him in his work, and that his appreciation of androgynous beauty was due solely to his fascination with the workings of both sexes of the human body. Gian entered Leonardo's household around 1488 at the age of 10, becoming his servant and assistant for the next thirty years. One of his lovers is thought to have been Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno (nicknamed Salai (Little Devil)). It has therefore been widely assumed that he was a homosexual.

Though he kept his private life particularly secret, it is known that he surrounded himself with handsome young men throughout his life, and his art reflects an appreciation of androgynous beauty (and in at least one instance, sexuality). There is no evidence that Leonardo was ever intimately involved with any woman, nor in a close friendship with one. Rocke reports that in a fictional dialogue on l'amore masculino (male love) written by the contemporary art critic and theorist Gian Paolo Lomazzo, Leonardo appears as one of the protagonists and declares, "Know that male love is exclusively the product of virtue which, joining men together with the diverse affections of friendship, makes it so that from a tender age they would enter into the manly one as more stalwart friends." In the dialogue, the interlocutor inquires of Leonardo about his relations with his assistant, Salai, "Did you play the game from behind which the Florentines love so much?". Modern critics contend that Leonardo's love of boys was well-known even in the sixteenth century.

For some time afterwards, Leonardo and the others were kept under observation by Florence's Officers of the Night - a kind of Renaissance vice squad, charged with suppressing the practice of sodomy, which a majority of male Florentines engaged in, as shown by surviving legal records of the Podestà and the Officers of the Night. After two months in jail, he was acquitted because no witnesses stepped forward. In 1476, he was accused anonymously, along with three other men, of sodomy with a 17 year-old model, Jacopo Saltarelli, who was a notorious male prostitute. Later, he became an independent painter in Florence.

In this role, Leonardo also worked with Lorenzo di Credi and Pietro Perugino. His early sketches were of such quality that his father soon showed them to the painter Andrea del Verrocchio, who subsequently took on the fourteen-year old Leonardo as an apprentice. Leonardo grew up with his father in Florence, where he started drawing and painting. Leonardo signed his works "Leonardo" or "Io, Leonardo" ("I, Leonardo").

Leonardo was born before modern naming conventions developed in Europe; his name "Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci", simply means "Leonardo, son of [Mes]ser Piero, from Vinci". It has been suggested, albeit on scanty evidence [1], that she was a Middle Eastern slave owned by Piero. Leonardo was born in Anchiano, near Vinci, Italy, the illegitimate child of Ser Piero da Vinci, a young notary, and Caterina, most likely a peasant girl. .

Renaissance humanism saw no mutually exclusive polarities between sciences and arts. In addition, he helped advance the study of anatomy, astronomy, and civil engineering. He is also known for designing many inventions that anticipated modern technology, although few of these designs were constructed in his lifetime. Leonardo is famous for his masterly paintings, such as The Last Supper and Mona Lisa.

He has been described as the archetype of the "Renaissance man" and as a universal genius. Leonardo da Vinci (April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519) was an Italian Renaissance architect, musician, anatomist, inventor, engineer, sculptor, geometer, and painter. ISBN 8809038916 (hardback). Giunti.

Leonardo da Vinci: Artist, Scientist, Inventor. Simona Cremante (2005). ISBN 0-140-29681-6. Penguin.

Leonardo da Vinci, The Flights of the mind. Charles Nicholl (2005). Dépot légal 4° trimestre 1965. Somogy.

Léonard de Vinci, L'homme et son oeuvre. Fred Bérence (1965). ISBN 3822817341 (hardback). Taschen.

Leonardo Da Vinci: The Complete Paintings and Drawings. Frank Zollner & Johannes Nathan (2003). A reprint of the original 1883 edition. 2 volumes.

ISBN 0486225720 and ISBN 0486225739 (paperback). Dover. The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. Jean Paul Richter (1970).

ISBN 0806513500 (paperback). Carol Publishing Group. The 100. Hart (1992).

Michael H. ISBN 0385323816 (paperback). Delacorte Press. How to Think Like Leonardo da Vinci: Seven Steps to Genius Every Day.

Gelb (1998). Michael J. The cartoon The Tick features Leonardo in Leonardo DaVinci and his Fightin' Genius Time Commandos! (Season 2, Episode 17, 1995). Peter Barnes's Leonardo's Last Supper centres on Leonardo being "resurrected" in a filthy charnel house after being prematurely declared dead.

The movie Hudson Hawk starring Bruce Willis and Danny Aiello revolves around Leonardo da Vinci's inventions. The movie Ever After from 1998 starring Drew Barrymore and Patrick Godfrey as Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles was named after Leonardo da Vinci. Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code revolves around a conspiracy based on elements of Leonardo's Last Supper and other works, claiming that he belonged to the Priory of Sion (a sect generally regarded as fictitious).

The Dargaud cartoon character Léonard by Turk and De Groot. Terry Pratchett's character Leonard of Quirm is a pastiche of Leonardo. In the mainstream DC Universe, according to "Secret Origins" #27, Leonardo is an ancestor of the famed Freemason Cagliostro, as well as Zatara and Zatanna who are both magicians (in the Magic (illusion) and Magic (paranormal) senses) and Superheroes. DC Comics's Vertigo division published a twelve-issue miniseries about Leonardo and his apprentice Salai, entitled "Chiaroscuro: The Private Life of Leonardo da Vinci.".

The DC Comics Elseworlds story Black Masterpiece, in Batman Annual #18 shows Leonardo's apprentice becoming a Renaissance Batman, using the Master's devices in his war on Florentine crime. Dann has his genius protagonist actually create his flying machine. The novel The Memory Cathedral by Jack Dann is a fictional account of a "lost year" in the life of Leonardo. The novel Pasquale's Angel by Paul McAuley, set in an alternate universe Florence, portrays Leonardo as "the Great Engineer", creating a premature industrial revolution (see clockpunk).

Theodore Mathieson's short story "Leonardo Da Vinci: Detective" portrays him using his genius to solve a murder during his time in France. Leonardo also appears as a character in several Doctor Who novels. The Doctor goes back in time to visit Leonardo's workshop and claims to be an old acquaintance of the artist. The 1979 Doctor Who story City of Death features a theft of the Mona Lisa.

Da Vinci (NCC-81623), a Saber-class vessel, named for the artist. (Starfleet Corps of Engineers) novels, the main starship of the series is called the U.S.S. Also, in the S.C.E. Actor James Daly played Flint / Leonardo in Star Trek: The Original Series, while John Rhys-Davies portrayed Leonardo in Star Trek Voyager.

Leonardo appears again in the Star Trek universe, in the series Star Trek Voyager, where his workshop is created as a holographic simulation. Leonardo's abilities and knowledge are thus attributed to centuries of scientific and artistic study. In the Star Trek: Original Series episode "Requiem for Methuselah", Leonardo da Vinci is revealed to be one of many aliases to "Flint", an immortal man born in the year 3834 BC. Bacchus (1515) – Louvre, Paris, France.

1514) – Louvre, Paris, France. John the Baptist (c. St. 1510) – Louvre, Paris, France.

Anne (c. The Virgin and Child with St. Leda and the Swan (1508) - (Only copies survive – best-known example in Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy). The Madonna of the Rocks or The Virgin of the Rocks (1508) – National Gallery, London, UK.

Mona Lisa or La Gioconda (1503-1505/1506) – Louvre, Paris, France. 1499-1500) – National Gallery, London, UK. John the Baptist (c. Anne and St.

The Virgin and Child with St. Maria delle Grazie, Milan, Italy. Last Supper (1498) – Convent of Sta. La belle Ferronière (1495-1498) – Louvre, Paris, France.