This page will contain discussion groups about Andrew Jackson, as they become available.Andrew JacksonAndrew Jackson (March 15, 1767–June 8, 1845), one of the founders of the Democratic Party, was the seventh President of the United States, serving from 1829 to 1837. Until his election, every President had either been from Massachusetts or a member of the Virginia plantation elite. Jackson was nicknamed "Old Hickory" and (by American Indians) "Sharp Knife". He was the first president who had lived on the American frontier, and thus the first not primarily associated with one of the original thirteen colonies. Jackson became the symbol of an era in American history—known as the "Age of Jackson" or the "Jacksonian Era"—an era traditionally seen as dominating the years between the War of 1812 and the Civil War. A number of cities are named after him, notably Jacksonville, Florida and Jackson, Mississippi. Early life and military careerJackson was born in a backwoods settlement in the Waxhaws area in the Carolinas on March 15, 1767. Both North Carolina and South Carolina have claimed him as a native son. Jackson himself always stated he was born in South Carolina. He received a sporadic education. At age thirteen he joined the Continental Army as a courier. He was captured and imprisoned by the British in the American Revolutionary War. Jackson was the last U.S. President to have been a veteran of the American Revolution, and the only President to have been a prisoner of war. The war took the lives of Jackson's entire immediate family. During the Revolution, after the surrender to the British at Charleston, he was taken as a prisoner to Camden and nearly starved. When Jackson refused to clean the boots of a British officer, the irate redcoat slashed him with a sword, giving Jackson the scars (and intense hatred for the British) that he would carry all his life. In addition, two of Jackson's brothers and his mother -- his entire remaining family -- died from wartime hardships that he also blamed on the British. This anglophobia would be combined with a distrust and dislike of Eastern aristocrats stemming from his feeling that they were too inclined to favor and emulate their former colonial masters. Jackson admired Napoleon Bonaparte for his willingness to contest British military supremacy. He came to Tennessee by 1787, having barely read law, but finding it enough to become a young lawyer on the frontier. Since he was not of a distinguished family, he had to make his career by his own merits, and soon he began to prosper in the rough-and-tumble world of frontier law. Most of the actions grew out of disputed land-claims or assault and battery. His courtroom demeanor was of his time. In 1795, he fought a duel with an opposing counsel over a courtroom argument. He was elected as Tennessee's first Congressman upon statehood in the late 1790s, and quickly became a U.S. Senator in 1797, but quit within a year. In 1798, he was appointed Judge on the Supreme Court of Tennessee. [1] Creek War and War of 1812He became a colonel in the Tennessee militia, which he led since 1801, the beginning of his military career. In 1813, after a massacre of 400 men, women and children at Fort Mims (in what is now Alabama) by Northern Creek Band chieftain Peter McQueen, Jackson commanded in the campaign against the Northern Creek Band of Indians of Alabama and Georgia aka the "Red Sticks." Creek leaders such as William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and Menawa, who had been allies of the British during the War of 1812, violently clashed with other chiefs of the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands and the "civilizing" programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. In the Creek War, a theatre of the War of 1812, he defeated the Red Stick Creeks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend aided by allies from the Southern Creek Indian Band, who had requested Jackson's aid in putting down what they considered to be the rebellious Red Sticks, as well as Cherokee Indians. Although 800 Northern Creek Band indians were killed in the battle, Jackson spared Weatherford's life from any acts of vengence. Sam Houston and David Crockett served under him at this time. Following the victory Jackson imposed the Treaty of Ft. Jackson upon both his Northern Creek enemy and Southern Creek allies wresting 20 million acres from all Creeks for white settlement. His service in the War of 1812 was conspicuous for its bravery and success. He was a strict officer, but was popular with his troops and was said to have been "tough as old hickory" wood on the battlefield, which gave him his nickname. The war, and particularly his command at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815, made his national reputation and he advanced in rank to Major General. In the battle, he opposed 12,000 of the Duke of Wellington's finest troops, led by the Duke's brother-in-law Edward Pakenham, with 6,000 of his own. The British had over 2,000 casualties to Jackson's 71 killed, wounded or missing. [2] A bust of Andrew Jackson at the Plaza Ferdinand VII in Pensacola, Florida, where Jackson was sworn in as territorial governor.First Seminole WarJackson saw military service again in what would become known as the First Seminole War when he was requested by James Monroe in December 1817 [3] to lead a campaign in Florida against the Seminole and Creek Indians and prevent Florida from being a refuge for runaway slaves. It was later said that Jackson exceeded his orders in Florida actions, but Monroe and the public wanted Florida. Before going, Jackson wrote to Monroe, ""Let it be signified to me through any channel (say Mr. John Rhea [a mutual confidant]) that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Monroe gave Jackson orders that were purposely ambiguous, sufficient for international denials. Jackson's Tennessee volunteers were attacked by Seminoles, but this left their villages vulnerable and Jackson burned them and their crops. In his investigation, he found letters that indicated that the Spanish and British were secretly assisting the Indians. Jackson believed that the United States would not be secure as long as Spain and Great Britain encouraged American Indians to fight and argued that his actions were undertaken in self defense. He captured Pensacola with little more than some warning shots and deposed the Spanish governor. He captured, tried, and executed two British subjects who had been supplying and advising the Indians. Jackson's action also struck fear into the Seminole tribes as his ruthlessness in battle spread. This also created an international incident, and many in the Monroe administration called for Jackson to be censured. His actions were defended by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. When the Spanish minister demanded a "suitable punishment" for Jackson, Adams wrote back "Spain must immediately [decide] either to place a force in Florida adequate at once to the protection of her territory, ... or cede to the United States a province, of which she retains nothing but the nominal possession, but which is, in fact, ... a post of annoyance to them." Adams used Jackson's conquest and Spain's own weaknesses to convince the Spanish (in the Adams-Onís Treaty) to cede Florida to the United States. Jackson was subsequently appointed territorial governor there. Jackson as PresidentDuring his first run for the Presidency in 1824, Jackson received a plurality of both the popular and electoral votes, but not a majority. The election was thrown into the House of Representatives, which chose John Quincy Adams instead. The election was considered dirty and, by many, stolen. Jackson himself favored reform of the electoral system afterwards, including abolishing the U.S. Electoral College. Jackson's defeat burnished his political credentials, however, since many voters believed the man of the people had been robbed by the corrupt aristocrats of the East. He won a solid victory in his second attempt in 1828 as the first nominee of the Democratic Party. Jackson was the first U.S. President to come from outside the original Revolutionary circle. Washington, Adams, Jefferson and Madison were notable figures in the War of Independence and in the formation of the U.S. Constitution. James Monroe fought in the Revolutionary War. John Quincy Adams was the son of John Adams. Jackson's election represented a significant break from that past. He was also the first President from a state west of the Appalachian Mountains. (Though born in the Carolinas, Jackson spent virtually all his adult life in Tennessee.) This was the first election in which many states allowed people without land to vote, and they voted for Jackson. Jackson is remembered for introducing the spoils system, or patronage, to American politics. Upon his election as President, a sizable number of people holding federal offices found that they had suddenly been replaced by supporters of Jackson who had worked to ensure his election. Jackson saw this system as promoting the growth of democracy, as more people were involved in politics. This practice has endured in political circles in the United States ever since. Additionally, Jackson pressured states to lower voting requirements to further the expansion of democracy. Opposition to the National BankAndrew Jackson is depicted on the U.S. $20 bill.As President, Jackson worked to dismantle the Second Bank of the United States. The original Bank of the United States had been introduced in 1791 by Alexander Hamilton as a way of organizing the federal government's finances. This first Bank lapsed in 1811. It was followed by the second Bank, authorized by James Madison in 1816 to alleviate the economic problems caused by the War of 1812. Both Banks were instrumental in the growth of the U.S. economy, but Jackson opposed the concept on ideological grounds. In Jackson's opinion, the Bank needed to be abolished because:
Jackson's opposition to the Bank manifested as a strong personal dislike for its president, Nicholas Biddle. Jackson followed Jefferson as a supporter of the ideal of an agricultural republic, and felt the Bank improved the fortunes of an elite circle of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs at the expense of farmers and laborers. After a titanic struggle, Jackson succeeded in destroying the Bank by vetoing its 1832 recharter by Congress and withdrawing U.S. funds in 1833. It was a Pyrrhic victory, however, as the Bank's money-lending functions were taken over by the legions of local and state banks that sprang up along with the expansion of credits and speculation, and the commercial progress of the nation's economy was noticeably dented. The United States Senate censured Jackson on March 27, 1834 for his actions in defunding the Bank of the United States. Nullification crisisStatue of Andrew Jackson in Nashville, Tennessee.Another notable crisis of Jackson's period of office was the nullification crisis (or secession crisis), of 1828-1832, which merged issues of sectional strife and disagreements over trade tariffs. High tariffs (the "Tariff of Abominations") on imports of common goods were seen by many in Southern states as unfairly benefiting Northern merchants and industrial entrepreneurs at the expense of those who had to buy the goods subject to the tariffs, mostly Southern farmers. The issue came to a head when Vice President John C. Calhoun, in the South Carolina Exposition and Protest of 1828, supported the claim of his home state, South Carolina, that it had the right to "nullify" — declare illegal — the tariff legislation of 1828, and more generally the right of a state to nullify laws which went against its interests. Although Jackson sympathized with the Southern interpretation of the tariff debate, he was also a strong supporter of federalism (in the sense of supporting a strong union with considerable powers for the central government) and attempted to face Calhoun down over the issue, which developed into a bitter rivalry between the two men. Particularly famous was an incident at the April 13, 1829 Jefferson Day dinner, involving after-dinner toasts. Jackson rose first and voice booming, yelled out "Our federal Union: IT MUST BE PRESERVED!", a clear challenge to Calhoun. Calhoun responded in a trembling voice "The Union: next to our liberty, most dear!," an astonishingly quick-witted riposte. In response to South Carolina's threat, Congress passed a "Force Bill" and Jackson vowed to send troops to South Carolina in order to enfore the laws. On December 10, he issued a resounding proclamation against the nullifiers, stating: "I consider...the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existance of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." South Carolina, the president declared, stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason," and he appealed to the people of the state to reassert their allegiance to that Union for which their ancestors had fought. Jackson also denied the right of secession: "The Constitution...forms a government not a league...To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation." The crisis was resolved in 1833 with a compromise settlement which, by substantially lowering the tariffs, hinted that the central government considered itself weak in dealing with determined opposition by an individual state. Indian RemovalJackson was a strong supporter of the policy of Indian Removal, and he signed the Indian Removal Act into law in 1830. The Removal Act did not order the removal of any American Indians, but it authorized the President to negotiate treaties that would exchange tribal land in the east for western lands that had been acquired in the Louisiana Purchase. According to biographer Robert V. Remini, Jackson favored relocating Native American tribes outside existing states primarily for national security reasons, since most American Indians had sided with the British in the Revolution and the War of 1812. The Removal Act was especially popular in the South, where population growth and the discovery of gold on Cherokee land increased pressure on tribal lands. The state of Georgia became involved in a contentious jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokees, culminating in the 1832 Supreme Court decision (Worcester v. Georgia) that ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands. However, Jackson had no intention of protecting the Cherokees from the state of Georgia, although the famously defiant quote attributed to him ("John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it!") was probably never uttered by Jackson. Realizing that removal under Jackson was inevitable, a faction of Cherokees led by Major Ridge negotiated the Treaty of New Echota with Jackson's administration, a document of dubious legality that was rejected by most Cherokees. However, the terms of the treaty were strictly enforced by Jackson's successor, Martin van Buren, which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Cherokees along the "Trail of Tears". Indian removal was used against the 4 other civilized tribes as well. The Creeks, for example, already feeling betrayed after the Battle of Horseshoe Bend were relocated to Fort Gibson in the Indian Territories during this period after Southern Creek Band Leader William McIntosh agreed to cede most of Georgia in the Treaty of Indian Springs resulting in McIntosh's assassination by Red Stick leader Menawa. Despite the treaty's nullification one year later by US Congress, it was nevertheless enforced by Georgia Governor George Troup. Assassination attemptThe etching of the assassination attempt.On January 30, 1835 an unsuccessful assassination attempt against Jackson occurred in the United States Capitol. This was the first assassination attempt against an American President. While Jackson was leaving a funeral for South Carolina congressman Warren R. Davis, a mentally ill man named Richard Lawrence, an unemployed house painter, came up to him and fired a pistol at point-blank range. The pistol misfired, and before anyone could react, the assassin pulled another pistol which, amazingly, also misfired. Instead of running or taking cover, the 67-year-old president proceeded to physically confront Lawrence with his cane. The print (shown right) made 20 years later became quite popular because it shows the president boldly confronting his attacker. The would-be assassin, who claimed Jackson had prevented him from taking his rightful claim to the British throne, was found not guilty by reason of insanity and committed to an asylum. Supporters of Jackson later accused the Whig Party of a conspiracy, but the accusation was never substantiated. Major presidential acts
CabinetSupreme Court appointments
Supreme Court cases during his presidency
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Family and later lifePortrait of Andrew JacksonJackson's wife, Rachel, died of a heart attack just 2 months prior to his taking office as President. She had supposedly divorced her first husband, Col. Lewis Robards, but there were questions about the legality of the divorce. Jackson deeply resented attacks on his wife's honor; he killed Charles Dickinson in a duel over an insult to his wife on May 30, 1806. Jackson was also injured during the duel and the bullet was so close to his heart that it could never be safely removed. It caused him considerable pain for the rest of his life. Jackson had two adopted sons, Andrew Jackson, Jr. and Lyncoya, a Creek Indian orphan adopted by Jackson after the Creek War. Lyncoya died in 1828 at age sixteen, probably from pneumonia or tuberculosis. Jackson remained influential in both national and state politics after retiring to The Hermitage, his Nashville home in 1837. Though a slaveholder, Jackson was a firm advocate of the federal union of the states and declined to give any support to talk of secession. He died at the Hermitage on June 8, 1845 at the age of 78, of chronic tuberculosis, dropsy and heart failure. His last words were: "Oh, do not cry. Be good children, and we shall all meet in Heaven." In his will, Jackson left his entire estate to his adopted son, Andrew Jackson Jr., except for specifically enumerated items that were left to various other friends and family members. Jackson left several slaves to his daughter-in-law and grandchildren. Jackson left a sword to his grandson, with the injunction, "that he will always use it in defence of our glorious Union." Physical characteristicsJackson was a cadaverous figure standing at 6 feet, 1 inch tall, and weighing at in between 130 and 140 pounds (64 kg) average. He never weighed more than 145 pounds. Jackson also had an unruly shock of red hair, which had completely grayed by the time he became president at age 61 in 1829 and penetrating dark blue eyes. Quotes
Movie and biographyThe story of Andrew and Rachel Jackson's life together was told in Irving Stone's best-selling 1951 biographical novel The President's Lady, which was made into the 1953 movie of the same title, starring Susan Hayward, Charlton Heston, John McIntire, and Carl Betz and directed by Henry Levin. The relationship between the two was also the basis of a successful documentary by the Public Broadcasting System, called Rachel and Andrew Jackson: A Love Story. References
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The relationship between the two was also the basis of a successful documentary by the Public Broadcasting System, called Rachel and Andrew Jackson: A Love Story.. In 2003, Ford's death was incorrectly announced by CNN when his pre-written obituary (along with those of several other famous figures) was inadvertently published on CNN's web site due to a lapse in password protection. The story of Andrew and Rachel Jackson's life together was told in Irving Stone's best-selling 1951 biographical novel The President's Lady, which was made into the 1953 movie of the same title, starring Susan Hayward, Charlton Heston, John McIntire, and Carl Betz and directed by Henry Levin. When New York Republican Governor George Pataki named the living former presidents as honorary members of the board rebuilding the World Trade Center, he was unaware of Ford's health decline in the recent months. Jackson also had an unruly shock of red hair, which had completely grayed by the time he became president at age 61 in 1829 and penetrating dark blue eyes. Bush in 2005. He never weighed more than 145 pounds. He was the only living former president not to attend the second inauguration of President George W. Jackson was a cadaverous figure standing at 6 feet, 1 inch tall, and weighing at in between 130 and 140 pounds (64 kg) average. Former president Bill Clinton told Larry King in an interview that Ford had confided that he now feels uncomfortable when flying in aircraft. Jackson left a sword to his grandson, with the injunction, "that he will always use it in defence of our glorious Union.". In addition, Ford was the only living former president not to attend ceremonies for the opening of the Bill Clinton Presidential Library in Little Rock, Arkansas. Jackson left several slaves to his daughter-in-law and grandchildren. He was, for the first time in his political life, unable to attend a Republican National Convention when he didn't attend the 2004 Republican National Convention in New York City. In his will, Jackson left his entire estate to his adopted son, Andrew Jackson Jr., except for specifically enumerated items that were left to various other friends and family members. Though he gave an interview to Larry King in June 2004, attended the funeral of former President Reagan, and spoke at ceremonies commemorating the 30th anniversary of his swearing-in in August 2004, Ford has appeared increasingly frail – and this may have caused him to cut back on his formerly busy schedule. Be good children, and we shall all meet in Heaven.". Recently, there has been ongoing speculation regarding Ford's health. His last words were: "Oh, do not cry. Ford has also endorsed civil unions for gay couples, and urged Republicans not support the impeachment of President Bill Clinton in the late 1990s. He died at the Hermitage on June 8, 1845 at the age of 78, of chronic tuberculosis, dropsy and heart failure. Although he had taken a more centrist-to-conservative stance on the matter while campaigning for president in 1976, Ford has emerged as a leading pro-choice Republican on abortion rights; he has been an advisor to Republicans for Choice, and told Larry King in an interview that he shared in his wife's outspoken support of reproductive rights. Though a slaveholder, Jackson was a firm advocate of the federal union of the states and declined to give any support to talk of secession. Ford has been outspoken on a variety of political issues confronting the nation since leaving office. Jackson remained influential in both national and state politics after retiring to The Hermitage, his Nashville home in 1837. Ford has remained popular as a caricature in his retirement, with such icons as Saturday Night Live and the Simpsons continuing to lampoon him, but despite his taking these in good humor has chosen to continue to respect the office by not appearing on those shows as himself. Lyncoya died in 1828 at age sixteen, probably from pneumonia or tuberculosis. Ford School of Public Policy in honor of Ford's lifetime of public service. and Lyncoya, a Creek Indian orphan adopted by Jackson after the Creek War. In 1999, the School of Public Policy at the University of Michigan was renamed the Gerald R. Jackson had two adopted sons, Andrew Jackson, Jr. Ford has remained an avid fan of Michigan football and delivered a videotaped message before Michigan and Ohio State played their 100th game in 2003. It caused him considerable pain for the rest of his life. Ford Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Jackson was also injured during the duel and the bullet was so close to his heart that it could never be safely removed. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and the Gerald R. Jackson deeply resented attacks on his wife's honor; he killed Charles Dickinson in a duel over an insult to his wife on May 30, 1806. In 1981 he opened the Gerald R. Lewis Robards, but there were questions about the legality of the divorce. Ford has remained relatively active as a former President, and during his post-presidential years he continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services. She had supposedly divorced her first husband, Col. Bush, and Bill Clinton) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the World Trade Center. Jackson's wife, Rachel, died of a heart attack just 2 months prior to his taking office as President. W. The would-be assassin, who claimed Jackson had prevented him from taking his rightful claim to the British throne, was found not guilty by reason of insanity and committed to an asylum. Ford was cited for his "controversial decision of conscience to pardon former President Richard M. The print (shown right) made 20 years later became quite popular because it shows the president boldly confronting his attacker. Kennedy Library Foundation for political courage. Instead of running or taking cover, the 67-year-old president proceeded to physically confront Lawrence with his cane. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award, a presigious award given by the John F. The pistol misfired, and before anyone could react, the assassin pulled another pistol which, amazingly, also misfired. In 2001 Ford was awarded the John F. Davis, a mentally ill man named Richard Lawrence, an unemployed house painter, came up to him and fired a pistol at point-blank range. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan was named after him in December 1999. While Jackson was leaving a funeral for South Carolina congressman Warren R. The Gerald R. This was the first assassination attempt against an American President. Ford was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton in 1999 for his efforts to heal the nation after the Watergate scandal. On January 30, 1835 an unsuccessful assassination attempt against Jackson occurred in the United States Capitol. He was hospitalized twice for dizziness in 2003. Despite the treaty's nullification one year later by US Congress, it was nevertheless enforced by Georgia Governor George Troup. While attending the 2000 Republican National Convention, Ford suffered two mild strokes, but has subsequently recovered. The Creeks, for example, already feeling betrayed after the Battle of Horseshoe Bend were relocated to Fort Gibson in the Indian Territories during this period after Southern Creek Band Leader William McIntosh agreed to cede most of Georgia in the Treaty of Indian Springs resulting in McIntosh's assassination by Red Stick leader Menawa. Bush, who had rivaled him for the presidential nomination. Indian removal was used against the 4 other civilized tribes as well. W. However, the terms of the treaty were strictly enforced by Jackson's successor, Martin van Buren, which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Cherokees along the "Trail of Tears". On the day a Vice President was to be nominated, however, Reagan could not convince Ford to join him on the ticket and instead chose George H. Realizing that removal under Jackson was inevitable, a faction of Cherokees led by Major Ridge negotiated the Treaty of New Echota with Jackson's administration, a document of dubious legality that was rejected by most Cherokees. At the 1980 Republican National Convention, Ford was nearly nominated to return to service as Vice President under nominee Ronald Reagan. However, Jackson had no intention of protecting the Cherokees from the state of Georgia, although the famously defiant quote attributed to him ("John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it!") was probably never uttered by Jackson. Had Ford won the election, he would have been disqualified by the 22nd amendment from running in 1980 because he served more than two years of Nixon's term. Georgia) that ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands. On 30 October 1975, his refusal to sanction federal aid for the city of New York led The New York Daily News to paraphrase their perception of Ford's attitude in the headline "Ford to City: Drop Dead". The state of Georgia became involved in a contentious jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokees, culminating in the 1832 Supreme Court decision (Worcester v. Carter replied that he would like to see Ford convince Czech-Americans and Polish-Americans that their countries did not live under Soviet domination. The Removal Act was especially popular in the South, where population growth and the discovery of gold on Cherokee land increased pressure on tribal lands. Additionally, Ford made a major gaffe during the second presidential election debate when he insisted that Eastern Europe was not dominated by the Soviet Union. Remini, Jackson favored relocating Native American tribes outside existing states primarily for national security reasons, since most American Indians had sided with the British in the Revolution and the War of 1812. His campaign may also have been hampered by a strong challenge that year for the nomination in the Republican party by Ronald Reagan. According to biographer Robert V. It is believed that Ford's pardoning of Nixon, along with the continuing economic problems, cost him the election of 1976. The Removal Act did not order the removal of any American Indians, but it authorized the President to negotiate treaties that would exchange tribal land in the east for western lands that had been acquired in the Louisiana Purchase. Jackson was a strong supporter of the policy of Indian Removal, and he signed the Indian Removal Act into law in 1830. Ford appointed the following Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States:. The crisis was resolved in 1833 with a compromise settlement which, by substantially lowering the tariffs, hinted that the central government considered itself weak in dealing with determined opposition by an individual state. In response to South Carolina's threat, Congress passed a "Force Bill" and Jackson vowed to send troops to South Carolina in order to enfore the laws. While in Sacramento, California on September 5, 1975, a follower of incarcerated cult leader Charles Manson named Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme pointed a Colt .45-caliber handgun at Ford's stomach as he was shaking hands with well-wishers. Calhoun responded in a trembling voice "The Union: next to our liberty, most dear!," an astonishingly quick-witted riposte. [2] Although Jackson sympathized with the Southern interpretation of the tariff debate, he was also a strong supporter of federalism (in the sense of supporting a strong union with considerable powers for the central government) and attempted to face Calhoun down over the issue, which developed into a bitter rivalry between the two men. It is believed that approximately sixty Khmer Rouge soldiers were killed out of a land and sea force of about 300. Calhoun, in the South Carolina Exposition and Protest of 1828, supported the claim of his home state, South Carolina, that it had the right to "nullify" — declare illegal — the tariff legislation of 1828, and more generally the right of a state to nullify laws which went against its interests. In all phases of the operation, fifty service men were wounded and forty-one killed, including three men believed to have been left behind alive and subsequently executed and twenty-three Air Force personnel killed earlier while en route to the staging area at Utapao, Thailand. The issue came to a head when Vice President John C. Ford dispatched Marines to rescue the crew, but the Marines landed on the wrong island and met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as, unknown to the US, the Mayaguez sailors were being released. High tariffs (the "Tariff of Abominations") on imports of common goods were seen by many in Southern states as unfairly benefiting Northern merchants and industrial entrepreneurs at the expense of those who had to buy the goods subject to the tariffs, mostly Southern farmers. In May 1975, shortly after the Khmer Rouge took power in Cambodia, Cambodians seized an American merchant ship, the Mayaguez, in international waters. Another notable crisis of Jackson's period of office was the nullification crisis (or secession crisis), of 1828-1832, which merged issues of sectional strife and disagreements over trade tariffs. Ford also faced a foreign policy crisis with the Mayaguez Incident. The United States Senate censured Jackson on March 27, 1834 for his actions in defunding the Bank of the United States. Ford and Congress battled over legislation, with Ford vetoing scores of Democratic bills. After a titanic struggle, Jackson succeeded in destroying the Bank by vetoing its 1832 recharter by Congress and withdrawing U.S. At the time inflation was around 7%, a relatively modest number in retrospect, but still enough to discourage investment and push capital overseas and into government bonds. Jackson followed Jefferson as a supporter of the ideal of an agricultural republic, and felt the Bank improved the fortunes of an elite circle of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs at the expense of farmers and laborers. However, most people recognized this as simply a public relations gimmick without offering any effective means of solving the underlying problem. Jackson's opposition to the Bank manifested as a strong personal dislike for its president, Nicholas Biddle. In response to rising inflation, Ford went before the American public on television in October 1974 and asked them to "whip inflation now" (WIN); as part of this program, he urged people to wear "WIN" buttons. In Jackson's opinion, the Bank needed to be abolished because:. The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration. economy, but Jackson opposed the concept on ideological grounds. Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country; many historians believe it cost him the election in 1976. Both Banks were instrumental in the growth of the U.S. On September 8, 1974 Ford gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he may have committed while President or, indeed, for anything else he might have done. It was followed by the second Bank, authorized by James Madison in 1816 to alleviate the economic problems caused by the War of 1812. On August 20 Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to fill the Vice Presidency he had vacated, again under the 25th Amendment. This first Bank lapsed in 1811. When Nixon then resigned in the wake of the Watergate scandal on August 9, 1974, Ford assumed the presidency, proclaiming that "our long national nightmare is over". The original Bank of the United States had been introduced in 1791 by Alexander Hamilton as a way of organizing the federal government's finances. He cited the many achievements of President Nixon and dismissed Watergate as a media event and a tragic sideshow. As President, Jackson worked to dismantle the Second Bank of the United States. Ford traveled widely as Vice President and made many speeches defending the embattled President. Additionally, Jackson pressured states to lower voting requirements to further the expansion of democracy. Ford had long been one of President Nixon's most outspoken supporters (someone joked once that "He is one of the few people who not only admires Nixon, but actually likes him!"). This practice has endured in political circles in the United States ever since. The United States Senate voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27, 1973 and on December 6, the House confirmed him 387 to 35. Jackson saw this system as promoting the growth of democracy, as more people were involved in politics. After Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned during Richard Nixon's presidency, on October 10, 1973, Nixon nominated Ford to take Agnew's place, under the 25th Amendment - the first time it was applied. Upon his election as President, a sizable number of people holding federal offices found that they had suddenly been replaced by supporters of Jackson who had worked to ensure his election. Ford made a speech charging Douglas with criminal activities and with promoting rebellion in his writings. Jackson is remembered for introducing the spoils system, or patronage, to American politics. Douglas, who was a Justice on the United States Supreme Court. (Though born in the Carolinas, Jackson spent virtually all his adult life in Tennessee.) This was the first election in which many states allowed people without land to vote, and they voted for Jackson. Ford also led an effort to impeach William O. He was also the first President from a state west of the Appalachian Mountains. Many in the press jokingly called this "The Ev and Jerry Show". Jackson's election represented a significant break from that past. The two men proposed Republican alternatives to President Johnson's policies. John Quincy Adams was the son of John Adams. Ford appeared on a televised series of press conferences with famed Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen that became very popular. James Monroe fought in the Revolutionary War. Ford charged that the President was meddling in the war effort and not letting the military do its job. Constitution. He made a speech attacking Johnson's Vietnam war policies called "Why are we pulling our punches in Vietnam?". Washington, Adams, Jefferson and Madison were notable figures in the War of Independence and in the formation of the U.S. He often attacked the "Great Society" programs of President Lyndon Johnson as unneeded or wasteful. President to come from outside the original Revolutionary circle. During the eight years (1965–1973) he served as Minority Leader, Ford won many friends in the House due to his fair leadership and inoffensive personality. Jackson was the first U.S. Today Ford is the only surviving member of the Commission, and continues to stand behind its conclusions. He won a solid victory in his second attempt in 1828 as the first nominee of the Democratic Party. The Commission eventually concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald had acted alone in killing the President, a conclusion sometimes disparaged by conspiracy theorists as the "Lone Nut Theory". Jackson's defeat burnished his political credentials, however, since many voters believed the man of the people had been robbed by the corrupt aristocrats of the East. Kennedy. Electoral College. During his tenure, Ford was chosen to serve on the Warren Commission, a special task force set up to investigate the causes of, and quell rumors regarding the assassination of President John F. Jackson himself favored reform of the electoral system afterwards, including abolishing the U.S. Ford won an award in 1961 as a "Congressman's Congressman" that praised his committee work on military budgets. The election was considered dirty and, by many, stolen. During his first campaign, he visited farmers and promised he would work on their farms and milk their cows if elected - a promise which he apparently fulfilled [1]. The election was thrown into the House of Representatives, which chose John Quincy Adams instead. He always stayed in close touch with the people of Grand Rapids. During his first run for the Presidency in 1824, Jackson received a plurality of both the popular and electoral votes, but not a majority. Ford was very popular with the voters in his district and was always re-elected with 60% margins. Jackson was subsequently appointed territorial governor there. Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 24 years from 1949 to 1973, and became Minority Leader of the Republican Party in the House. a post of annoyance to them." Adams used Jackson's conquest and Spain's own weaknesses to convince the Spanish (in the Adams-Onís Treaty) to cede Florida to the United States. Ford spent the remainder of the war ashore and was discharged as a lieutenant commander in February 1946. or cede to the United States a province, of which she retains nothing but the nominal possession, but which is, in fact, .. The ship, which was severely damaged by the storm and a resulting fire, had to be taken out of service. When the Spanish minister demanded a "suitable punishment" for Jackson, Adams wrote back "Spain must immediately [decide] either to place a force in Florida adequate at once to the protection of her territory, .. He came within inches of being swept overboard while the storm raged. His actions were defended by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. His closest call with death came not as a result of enemy fire, however, but during a vicious typhoon in the Philippine Sea in December 1944. This also created an international incident, and many in the Monroe administration called for Jackson to be censured. He was first assigned as athletic director and gunnery division officer, then as assistant navigator with the Monterey, which took part in most of the major operations in the South Pacific, including Truk, Saipan, and the Philippines. Jackson's action also struck fear into the Seminole tribes as his ruthlessness in battle spread. In the spring of 1943 he began service in the light aircraft carrier USS Monterey (CVL-26). He captured, tried, and executed two British subjects who had been supplying and advising the Indians. After an orientation program at Annapolis, he became a physical fitness instructor at a pre- flight school in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. He captured Pensacola with little more than some warning shots and deposed the Spanish governor. Naval Reserve receiving a commission as an ensign. Jackson believed that the United States would not be secure as long as Spain and Great Britain encouraged American Indians to fight and argued that his actions were undertaken in self defense. In April 1942 Ford joined the U.S. In his investigation, he found letters that indicated that the Spanish and British were secretly assisting the Indians. He is quoted for saying, "I am the first Eagle Scout President!". Jackson's Tennessee volunteers were attacked by Seminoles, but this left their villages vulnerable and Jackson burned them and their crops. He always regarded this as one of his proudest accomplishments even after attaining the White House. John Rhea [a mutual confidant]) that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Monroe gave Jackson orders that were purposely ambiguous, sufficient for international denials. Ford joined the Boy Scouts as a child and attained the highest rank of Eagle Scout. Before going, Jackson wrote to Monroe, ""Let it be signified to me through any channel (say Mr. Ford graduated from law school in 1941, having coached football and boxing part time to pay for school. It was later said that Jackson exceeded his orders in Florida actions, but Monroe and the public wanted Florida. This petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for America First, a group determined to keep America out of World War II. Jackson saw military service again in what would become known as the First Seminole War when he was requested by James Monroe in December 1817 [3] to lead a campaign in Florida against the Seminole and Creek Indians and prevent Florida from being a refuge for runaway slaves. as they signed a petition to enforce the 1939 Neutrality Act. [2]. Douglas Stuart, Jr. The British had over 2,000 casualties to Jackson's 71 killed, wounded or missing. While at the Yale Law School, Ford joined a group of students led by R. In the battle, he opposed 12,000 of the Duke of Wellington's finest troops, led by the Duke's brother-in-law Edward Pakenham, with 6,000 of his own. After graduating the following spring, he turned down contract offers from the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers of the National Football League. The war, and particularly his command at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815, made his national reputation and he advanced in rank to Major General. (His number 48 jersey has since been retired by the school.) At Michigan he joined Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity and earned money for expenses by washing dishes at the fraternity house. He was a strict officer, but was popular with his troops and was said to have been "tough as old hickory" wood on the battlefield, which gave him his nickname. A three-year letterman, Ford helped the Wolverines to undefeated seasons in 1932 and 1933 and was voted the team's most valuable player in 1934. His service in the War of 1812 was conspicuous for its bravery and success. Ford grew up in Grand Rapids, Michigan and starred as a center playing American football for the University of Michigan. Jackson upon both his Northern Creek enemy and Southern Creek allies wresting 20 million acres from all Creeks for white settlement. Presidents to have been adopted. Following the victory Jackson imposed the Treaty of Ft. He and Democrat Bill Clinton are the only two U.S. Sam Houston and David Crockett served under him at this time. His parents divorced two years after he was born, and his mother remarried to Gerald Ford, after whom he was renamed despite never being formally adopted by his step-father. Although 800 Northern Creek Band indians were killed in the battle, Jackson spared Weatherford's life from any acts of vengence. Ford was born to Leslie Lynch King and Dorothy Ayer Gardner in Omaha, Nebraska. In the Creek War, a theatre of the War of 1812, he defeated the Red Stick Creeks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend aided by allies from the Southern Creek Indian Band, who had requested Jackson's aid in putting down what they considered to be the rebellious Red Sticks, as well as Cherokee Indians. . Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. He will surpass Hoover if he lives to or beyond September 7, 2008. In 1813, after a massacre of 400 men, women and children at Fort Mims (in what is now Alabama) by Northern Creek Band chieftain Peter McQueen, Jackson commanded in the campaign against the Northern Creek Band of Indians of Alabama and Georgia aka the "Red Sticks." Creek leaders such as William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and Menawa, who had been allies of the British during the War of 1812, violently clashed with other chiefs of the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands and the "civilizing" programs administered by U.S. He also has the second longest retirement among presidents at 28 years, behind Herbert Hoover. He became a colonel in the Tennessee militia, which he led since 1801, the beginning of his military career. president. [1]. Should Ford live to or beyond November 11, 2006, he will become the longest-lived U.S. In 1798, he was appointed Judge on the Supreme Court of Tennessee. history. Senator in 1797, but quit within a year. At present, Ford is the second longest-lived president in U.S. He was elected as Tennessee's first Congressman upon statehood in the late 1790s, and quickly became a U.S. President (after Ronald Reagan) to reach his 92nd birthday. In 1795, he fought a duel with an opposing counsel over a courtroom argument. On July 14, 2005, he became the second former U.S. His courtroom demeanor was of his time. As of 2005, he is the oldest living former President. Most of the actions grew out of disputed land-claims or assault and battery. Along with his own vice president, Nelson Rockefeller, he is one of only two people to have been appointed Vice President rather than elected. Since he was not of a distinguished family, he had to make his career by his own merits, and soon he began to prosper in the rough-and-tumble world of frontier law. When Nixon resigned on noon of August 9, 1974, Ford assumed the presidency. He came to Tennessee by 1787, having barely read law, but finding it enough to become a young lawyer on the frontier. Instead, following the resignation of Spiro Agnew in 1973, he was nominated as Vice President by Richard Nixon and approved by both houses of Congress (not just the Senate, as is the procedure for Cabinet members, Supreme Court justices, and most other federal officials), in keeping with provisions of the 25th Amendment. Jackson admired Napoleon Bonaparte for his willingness to contest British military supremacy. He remains the only individual to serve as President without ever having been elected to either the presidency or vice presidency. This anglophobia would be combined with a distrust and dislike of Eastern aristocrats stemming from his feeling that they were too inclined to favor and emulate their former colonial masters. Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. (born July 14, 1913) (born Leslie Lynch King, Jr., renamed after his mother's remarriage) was the fortieth (1973–1974) Vice President and the thirty-eighth (1974–1977) President of the United States. In addition, two of Jackson's brothers and his mother -- his entire remaining family -- died from wartime hardships that he also blamed on the British. The focus is on Soviet-American relations, including the Vladivostok summit, Helsinki Conference, Angola, detente, and the role of Henry Kissinger.]. When Jackson refused to clean the boots of a British officer, the irate redcoat slashed him with a sword, giving Jackson the scars (and intense hatred for the British) that he would carry all his life. 76-201. During the Revolution, after the surrender to the British at Charleston, he was taken as a prisoner to Camden and nearly starved. [Memoir - Information on his Ford administration work in the State Department and on the National Security Council staff appears on pp. The war took the lives of Jackson's entire immediate family. New York: Random House, 1987. President to have been a veteran of the American Revolution, and the only President to have been a prisoner of war. Mortal Rivals: Superpower Relations From Nixon to Reagan. Jackson was the last U.S. Hyland, William. He was captured and imprisoned by the British in the American Revolutionary War. Reprinted in Hersey's book "Aspects of the Presidency: Truman and Ford in Office," New Haven, Ticknor and Fields, 1980.]. At age thirteen he joined the Continental Army as a courier. Originally appeared in the "New York Times Magazine," April 20, 1975. He received a sporadic education. [A writer examines President Ford's activities during one week in March 1975. Jackson himself always stated he was born in South Carolina. New York: Knopf, 1975. Both North Carolina and South Carolina have claimed him as a native son. The President: A Minute-by-Minute Account of a Week in the Life of Gerald Ford. Jackson was born in a backwoods settlement in the Waxhaws area in the Carolinas on March 15, 1767. Hersey, John. . Chapters 7–16 concern his work as a White House Counsellor and supervisor of the speechwriting unit.]. A number of cities are named after him, notably Jacksonville, Florida and Jackson, Mississippi. Several chapters concern his work as an assistant to Congressman and Vice President Ford. Jackson became the symbol of an era in American history—known as the "Age of Jackson" or the "Jacksonian Era"—an era traditionally seen as dominating the years between the War of 1812 and the Civil War. [Memoir. He was the first president who had lived on the American frontier, and thus the first not primarily associated with one of the original thirteen colonies. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. Jackson was nicknamed "Old Hickory" and (by American Indians) "Sharp Knife". Palace Politics: An Insider's Account of the Ford Years. Until his election, every President had either been from Massachusetts or a member of the Virginia plantation elite. Hartmann, Robert T. Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767–June 8, 1845), one of the founders of the Democratic Party, was the seventh President of the United States, serving from 1829 to 1837. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995. ISBN 0809015528 (paperback), ISBN 0809066319 (hardback). Ford. New York: Hill & Wang, 1993. The Presidency of Gerald R. The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians. Greene, John Robert. Wallace, Anthony F.C. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992. Winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History. The Limits of Power: The Nixon and Ford Administrations. ISBN 0316773441. Greene, John Robert. Originally published Boston: Little, Brown, 1945, often reprinted. Ford that took place at Hofstra University in April 1989.]. The Age of Jackson. [Proceedings of a conference on the presidency of Gerald R. Jr. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993. Schlesinger, Arthur M. Firestone and Alexej Ugrinsky. ISBN 0670910252. Ford and the Politics of Post-Watergate America, edited by Bernard J. New York: Viking, 2001. Gerald R. Remini, Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars. Photographs selected by Audiovisual Archivist Ken Hafeli.]. Robert V. Mackaman, Leesa Tobin, and David Horrocks of the Ford Library. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume biography, originally published New York: Harper, 1998 (ISBN 0060159049); reprinted 2001 (ISBN 0060937351). [Sections written by Frank H. Remini, The Life of Andrew Jackson. Washington, DC: National Archives Trust Fund Board, 1994. Robert V. Ford: Presidential Perspectives from the National Archives. Combines two books: The Border Captain and Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President; winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Biography. Gerald R. The Life of Andrew Jackson New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1938. [Interviews with Ford administration officials.]. James, Marquis. Lanham, MA: University Press of America, 1988. ISBN 0375414282. Portraits of American Presidents, VII. New York: Knopf, 2003. Thompson. The Passions of Andrew Jackson. The Ford Presidency: Twenty-Two Intimate Perspectives of Gerald Ford, Edited by Kenneth W. Brustein, Andrew. [Memoir mainly concerning his presidency.]. 1986), ISBN 0940450356. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison (Library Classics of the United State, Inc. Ford. It must be preserved!". A Time to Heal: The Autobiography of Gerald R. "Our federal union. Ford, Gerald R. I can command a body of men in a rough way, but I am not fit to be president.". [A collection of speeches Ford delivered between 1965 and 1972 concerning politics and domestic and foreign affairs.]. "I know what I am fit for. Beatty, 1973. "Any man worth his salt will stick up for what he believes right, but it takes a slightly better man to acknowledge instantly and without reservation that he is in error.". Arlington, VA: R.W. "There is no pleasure in having nothing to do; the fun is having lots to do and not doing it.". Selected Speeches. Its evils exist only in its abuses.". Ford, Gerald R. "There are no necessary evils in government. The book emphasizes personal and family experiences rather than political events.]. "It is a damn poor mind indeed which can think of only one way to spell a word.". Ford's memoir - chapters 22- 37 concern her husband's presidency. "One man with courage makes a majority.". [Mrs. "Corporations have neither bodies to kick nor souls to damn.". New York: Harper & Row, 1978. Michigan (1837). The Times of My Life. Arkansas (1836). Ford, Betty. Georgia, 1832. Chapter 7 concerns his service as a Ford speechwriter, August 1974–February 1975.]. Worcester v. [Memoir. Georgia, 1831. New York: Doubleday, 1979. Cherokee Nation vs. Fall in and Cheer. Philip Pendleton Barbour. Coyne, John R. Roger Brooke Taney. [Annual volumes reviewing activities or issues.]. James Moore Wayne. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1974-1976. Henry Baldwin. Presidency. John McLean. Congressional Quarterly, Inc. Executive Order: Specie Circular (1836). [Background on Ford's political career and legislative record prior to becoming President, including his statements on major issues.]. Signed Force Bill of 1833. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1974. Vetoed renewal of Second Bank of the United States (1832). President Ford: The Man and His Record. Signed Indian Removal Act of 1830. Congressional Quarterly, Inc. Maysville Road Veto. It covers the period from November 1974 to January 1976.]. it favored Northeastern states over Southern and Western (now Midwestern) states. [Memoir by a speechwriter for President Ford. Congress;. Boulder, CO: Colorado Associated University Press, 1977. it exercised too much control over members of U.S. The Ford White House: Diary of a Speechwriter. it exposed the government to control by foreign interests;. Casserly, John J. it concentrated an excessive amount of the nation's financial strength;. [Chapters 1-3 concern Ford's early life and election to Congress; chapters 4–7 his congressional career; chapters 8–11 Watergate; chapters 12–19 concern Ford's appointment as Vice President, his vice presidency, the move to impeach Richard Nixon, and the transition to the presidency; chapter 20 concerns the Nixon pardon; and chapter 21 is a summary of the Ford presidency.]. it was unconstitutional;. New York: HarperCollins, 1993. Ford's Appointment with History. Time and Chance: Gerald R. Cannon, James. John Paul Stevens: 1975. |